Luận văn thạc sĩ VNU ULIS self efficacy of native and non native english speaker teachers

Statement of the research problem and rationale for the study

As English becomes a global language for communication and business and the teaching of English becomes a fast growth industry, an increasing number of English language teachers who are non-native English speakers can be seen in English as a Second Language (ESL) as well as in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts around the world This raises so much interest in issues related to non-native English speaker teachers (NNEST) in the field of teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) that a proliferation of papers, theses, dissertations, and publications has been dedicated to the topic Specifically, the issues of NNESTs have been examined from chiefly three different areas of interest, which are the self-perceptions of NNESTs (e.g Amin, 1997; Medgyes,

1983, 1994; Reves & Medgyes, 1994), the credibility of NNESTs (e.g Amin, 1997, 1999;

Braine, 1999; Thomas, 1999), and the meaning of the label NNES educator and other parties’ perceptions of NNES educators (e.g., Hansen, 2004; Inbar, 2001; J Liu, 1999,

Self-efficacy, on the other hand, has been a fresh and recent research issue in the field of psychology and education (Bandura, 1995; Llurda, 2005; Graddol, 2007; Liu,

2009, Karimvand, 2011) Self-efficacy, as defined by Bandura (1995), is a person’s beliefs in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation More precisely, it is “the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations” (Bandura, 1995, p.2) The concept of self-efficacy is different from self-perception, which is an individual’s knowledge of their own “attitudes, emotions, and other internal states” through inference from observations of their own behaviour and/ or the circumstances in which this behaviour occurs (Bem, 1972, p 2) The nature of self- efficacy is more cognitive and more concerned with expectancy beliefs about an

(Bandura, 1997, cited in Mercer, 2008) In other words, self-efficacy is “a context-specific assessment of competence to perform a specific task, a judgement of one's capabilities to execute specific behaviours in specific situations” (Pajares and Miller, 1994, p 194) Self- efficacy can have an impact on everything from psychological states to behaviour to motivation, and thus, has become an important topic among psychologists and educators

Research on the self-perceptions of native English speaker teachers (NESTs) has received its fair share of attention (Braine, 1999; Kamhi-Stein, 2004; Llurda, 2005)

However, little has been done on the self-efficacy of NNESTs, which is the belief in their own capabilities to succeed in their teaching career which can impact their psychological states, behaviour, and motivation, etc and in turn their students’ learning outcomes and achievement

In reality, at the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education, University of Languages and International Studies (FELTE, ULIS) in Vietnam, the teaching of English is in fact provided by a faculty comprising mainly native speakers of Vietnamese What is more, FELTE – previously part of the English Department – under University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi (ULIS, VNUH), is one of the leading and avant-garde English teaching institutions in Vietnam, with – among many others – the main aim of providing quality teachers of English for Vietnam

On this ground, the researcher was motivated to carry out the research entitled “Self- Efficacy of Native and Non-Native English Speaker Teachers”, which aims to investigate the self-efficacy of NNESTs and to compare it with their NEST counterpart at FELTE, ULIS, to see what factors affect their teaching and the effectiveness of their work.

Aims of the study

This research aims to investigate the self-efficacy beliefs of NNESTs and to compare it with the self-efficacy beliefs of their NEST counterpart, and from the findings, to propose some context-specific suggestions for the betterment of professional development for NNESTs at ULIS-VNUH in particular and in Vietnam in general efficacy, nor with all categories of teachers at ULIS, VNUH The study focuses on teacher self-efficacy, among some other types of self-efficacy beliefs (Self-efficacy, 2011) In particular, the study focuses on the self-efficacy of NNESTs and NESTs at FELTE, ULIS, VNUH It specifically targets self-efficacy in the educational context

1) What are the self-efficacy of NNESTs at FELTE?

2) What are the self-efficacy of NESTs at FELTE?

3) What is the relationship between the self-efficacy of these two parties in terms of gender and teaching experience? ii Participants:

34 non-native English speaker teachers working in the EFL English language teachers training (ELTT) program at VNUH and 6 native English speaker teachers involved with ELTT program at VNUH and several other ELTT universities and colleges in Vietnam were involved in the study iii Instrumentation:

The methodology of this research is mainly quantitative The study employs the Teacher Efficacy Beliefs Scale – Self developed by Dellinger et al (2008) to probe the self-efficacy beliefs of both native English speaker teachers and non-native English speaker teachers, and to analyse the correlation between the self-efficacy of these two parties iv Data analysis The collected data were categorised and quantitatively analysed Data from questionnaires were statistically analysed to find answers to the research questions 1, 2, 3

On the basis of the statistical analyses of data, the self-efficacy of NNESTs and NESTs will emerge, and thus be compared to existing literature Then suggestions for better professional development and eventually even better teaching quality at ULIS, VNUH are proposed

This paper is divided into three main parts:

Part A is the INTRODUCTION In this part, the rationales of the study, the aims, research questions, the scope of the study, methods of the study and also its design are presented

Part B is the DEVELOPMENT which includes 4 chapters

Chapter 1, Literature Review, deals with a theoretical background about the definitions of the self-efficacy and its characteristics; “teachers’ self-efficacy”, and the

“non-native English speaker teachers”, together with an overview of the teaching context at Faculty of English Language Teacher Education, University of Languages and International Studies (FELTE, ULIS) At the same time, a review of related studies discloses the research gap; thus, justifies the aims and objectives of the whole study

Chapter 2, Research Methodology, describes the situation where the study was conducted and the informants involved in the study It includes the teachers of English, both NSETs and NNSETs The data collection instruments, procedures of data collection and data analysis are also presented in this chapter

Chapter 3, Results and Discussion, presents and discusses the findings on self- efficacy of NESTs and NNESTs and a comparison of the two parties as well as the extent that self-efficacy contributes to the work achievement of the two parties

Chapter 4, Implications and Recommendations, presents some pedagogical implications of the study and suggestions for even better professional development for limitations and suggests for further research

REFERENCES and APPENDICES are presented in the last pages of the study

PART B: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW his first chapter sheds light on the literature pertinent to the present study, i.e the theoretical background and the review of studies relevant to the topic of research

Initially, the theoretical background will be elucidated with an explanation of key concepts, namely “self-efficacy”, “teachers’ self-efficacy”, and the “non-native English speaker teachers”, together with a thematically organised review of relevant studies Then, an overview of the teaching context at Faculty of English Language Teacher Education (FELTE), University of Languages and International Studies (ULIS), Vietnam National University, Hanoi (VNUH) is presented Finally, a statement of the place and importance of the study in relation to current literature will justify the aims and objectives of the whole research

1.1 Review of literature related to Self-efficacy and Teacher Self-efficacy theories

The following part provides definition of the key concepts, which contribute to the theoretical foundation of the study, and reviews relevant literature which lays out the conceptualisation of the concept Information is organised thematically

1.1.1 Definition, roles, sources, and types of self-efficacy

Self-efficacy, first coined by Albert Bandura (1977) in his social cognitive theory, is a concept in the field of psychology which refers to a person’s beliefs in his or her own ability to succeed in a particular situation It is “the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations” (Bandura,

1995, p.2) Pajares and Miller (1994) later provided a definition which highlights the cognitive and context specific nature of self-efficacy, which is “a context-specific assessment of competence to perform a specific task, a judgement of one's capabilities to

T execute specific behaviours in specific situations” (p 194) Pajares (2002), basing on Bandura (1986), also defines self-efficacy beliefs as “people's judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances.” In other words, self-efficacy is a “future-oriented belief” about the level of competence a person expects he or she will display in a given situation

In the TESOL field, self-efficacy has often been confused, and sometimes referred to inconsistently or even inaccurately, with other related terms such as “self-esteem” and

“self-concept” In fact, all the three terms, “self-efficacy”, “self-esteem” and “self- concept”, are under one umbrella known as “self-constructs” – beliefs about oneself which are thought to affect behaviour and attitudes (Mercer, 2008) Self-constructs, such as self- confidence, self-concept, self-efficacy, and self-esteem, have appeared in a wide array of research areas in foreign language teaching such as works on affect, autonomy, identity, individual differences, and motivation (e.g Dửrnyei 2005; Williams et al 2004; Yang 1999; Yashima et al 2004, cited in Mercer, 2008) In her journal article, Mercer (2008) made a clear distinction among the three key self-constructs, i.e self-esteem, self-concept, and self-efficacy

Methodology

1) What are the self-efficacy of NNESTs at FELTE?

2) What are the self-efficacy of NESTs at FELTE?

3) What is the relationship between the self-efficacy of these two parties in terms of gender and teaching experience? ii Participants:

34 non-native English speaker teachers working in the EFL English language teachers training (ELTT) program at VNUH and 6 native English speaker teachers involved with ELTT program at VNUH and several other ELTT universities and colleges in Vietnam were involved in the study iii Instrumentation:

The methodology of this research is mainly quantitative The study employs the Teacher Efficacy Beliefs Scale – Self developed by Dellinger et al (2008) to probe the self-efficacy beliefs of both native English speaker teachers and non-native English speaker teachers, and to analyse the correlation between the self-efficacy of these two parties iv Data analysis The collected data were categorised and quantitatively analysed Data from questionnaires were statistically analysed to find answers to the research questions 1, 2, 3

On the basis of the statistical analyses of data, the self-efficacy of NNESTs and NESTs will emerge, and thus be compared to existing literature Then suggestions for better professional development and eventually even better teaching quality at ULIS, VNUH are proposed

This paper is divided into three main parts:

Part A is the INTRODUCTION In this part, the rationales of the study, the aims, research questions, the scope of the study, methods of the study and also its design are presented

Part B is the DEVELOPMENT which includes 4 chapters

Chapter 1, Literature Review, deals with a theoretical background about the definitions of the self-efficacy and its characteristics; “teachers’ self-efficacy”, and the

“non-native English speaker teachers”, together with an overview of the teaching context at Faculty of English Language Teacher Education, University of Languages and International Studies (FELTE, ULIS) At the same time, a review of related studies discloses the research gap; thus, justifies the aims and objectives of the whole study

Chapter 2, Research Methodology, describes the situation where the study was conducted and the informants involved in the study It includes the teachers of English, both NSETs and NNSETs The data collection instruments, procedures of data collection and data analysis are also presented in this chapter

Chapter 3, Results and Discussion, presents and discusses the findings on self- efficacy of NESTs and NNESTs and a comparison of the two parties as well as the extent that self-efficacy contributes to the work achievement of the two parties

Chapter 4, Implications and Recommendations, presents some pedagogical implications of the study and suggestions for even better professional development for limitations and suggests for further research

REFERENCES and APPENDICES are presented in the last pages of the study

PART B: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW his first chapter sheds light on the literature pertinent to the present study, i.e the theoretical background and the review of studies relevant to the topic of research

Initially, the theoretical background will be elucidated with an explanation of key concepts, namely “self-efficacy”, “teachers’ self-efficacy”, and the “non-native English speaker teachers”, together with a thematically organised review of relevant studies Then, an overview of the teaching context at Faculty of English Language Teacher Education (FELTE), University of Languages and International Studies (ULIS), Vietnam National University, Hanoi (VNUH) is presented Finally, a statement of the place and importance of the study in relation to current literature will justify the aims and objectives of the whole research

1.1 Review of literature related to Self-efficacy and Teacher Self-efficacy theories

The following part provides definition of the key concepts, which contribute to the theoretical foundation of the study, and reviews relevant literature which lays out the conceptualisation of the concept Information is organised thematically

1.1.1 Definition, roles, sources, and types of self-efficacy

Self-efficacy, first coined by Albert Bandura (1977) in his social cognitive theory, is a concept in the field of psychology which refers to a person’s beliefs in his or her own ability to succeed in a particular situation It is “the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations” (Bandura,

1995, p.2) Pajares and Miller (1994) later provided a definition which highlights the cognitive and context specific nature of self-efficacy, which is “a context-specific assessment of competence to perform a specific task, a judgement of one's capabilities to

T execute specific behaviours in specific situations” (p 194) Pajares (2002), basing on Bandura (1986), also defines self-efficacy beliefs as “people's judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances.” In other words, self-efficacy is a “future-oriented belief” about the level of competence a person expects he or she will display in a given situation

In the TESOL field, self-efficacy has often been confused, and sometimes referred to inconsistently or even inaccurately, with other related terms such as “self-esteem” and

“self-concept” In fact, all the three terms, “self-efficacy”, “self-esteem” and “self- concept”, are under one umbrella known as “self-constructs” – beliefs about oneself which are thought to affect behaviour and attitudes (Mercer, 2008) Self-constructs, such as self- confidence, self-concept, self-efficacy, and self-esteem, have appeared in a wide array of research areas in foreign language teaching such as works on affect, autonomy, identity, individual differences, and motivation (e.g Dửrnyei 2005; Williams et al 2004; Yang 1999; Yashima et al 2004, cited in Mercer, 2008) In her journal article, Mercer (2008) made a clear distinction among the three key self-constructs, i.e self-esteem, self-concept, and self-efficacy

Citing the work of Valentine & DuBois (2005, p 55), Mercer explained that all of the three above concepts share “a common emphasis on an individual's beliefs in his or her attributes and abilities as a person”; however, they are different in terms of (1) degree of specificity with which they are measured, and (2) the relative importance of the cognitive and evaluative elements Firstly, self-esteem is seen as a more global construct, which focuses on an individual’s overall evaluation of his/her worth or value as a person, and thus considered as the broadest and most evaluative of the three constructs In this aspect, “self- esteem” and “self-worth” are often used interchangeably (Harter, 1999, p 5, cited in Mercer, 2008) In contrast, self-efficacy is more cognitive in nature and more concerned with expectancy beliefs in one's perceived capability to perform a certain task in a very specific domain (Bandura, 1997) such as managing a classroom or motivating students

Organisation of the thesis

This paper is divided into three main parts:

Part A is the INTRODUCTION In this part, the rationales of the study, the aims, research questions, the scope of the study, methods of the study and also its design are presented

Part B is the DEVELOPMENT which includes 4 chapters

Chapter 1, Literature Review, deals with a theoretical background about the definitions of the self-efficacy and its characteristics; “teachers’ self-efficacy”, and the

“non-native English speaker teachers”, together with an overview of the teaching context at Faculty of English Language Teacher Education, University of Languages and International Studies (FELTE, ULIS) At the same time, a review of related studies discloses the research gap; thus, justifies the aims and objectives of the whole study

Chapter 2, Research Methodology, describes the situation where the study was conducted and the informants involved in the study It includes the teachers of English, both NSETs and NNSETs The data collection instruments, procedures of data collection and data analysis are also presented in this chapter

Chapter 3, Results and Discussion, presents and discusses the findings on self- efficacy of NESTs and NNESTs and a comparison of the two parties as well as the extent that self-efficacy contributes to the work achievement of the two parties

Chapter 4, Implications and Recommendations, presents some pedagogical implications of the study and suggestions for even better professional development for limitations and suggests for further research

REFERENCES and APPENDICES are presented in the last pages of the study.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Review of literature related to Self-efficacy and Teacher Self-efficacy theories

The following part provides definition of the key concepts, which contribute to the theoretical foundation of the study, and reviews relevant literature which lays out the conceptualisation of the concept Information is organised thematically

1.1.1 Definition, roles, sources, and types of self-efficacy

Self-efficacy, first coined by Albert Bandura (1977) in his social cognitive theory, is a concept in the field of psychology which refers to a person’s beliefs in his or her own ability to succeed in a particular situation It is “the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations” (Bandura,

1995, p.2) Pajares and Miller (1994) later provided a definition which highlights the cognitive and context specific nature of self-efficacy, which is “a context-specific assessment of competence to perform a specific task, a judgement of one's capabilities to

T execute specific behaviours in specific situations” (p 194) Pajares (2002), basing on Bandura (1986), also defines self-efficacy beliefs as “people's judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances.” In other words, self-efficacy is a “future-oriented belief” about the level of competence a person expects he or she will display in a given situation

In the TESOL field, self-efficacy has often been confused, and sometimes referred to inconsistently or even inaccurately, with other related terms such as “self-esteem” and

“self-concept” In fact, all the three terms, “self-efficacy”, “self-esteem” and “self- concept”, are under one umbrella known as “self-constructs” – beliefs about oneself which are thought to affect behaviour and attitudes (Mercer, 2008) Self-constructs, such as self- confidence, self-concept, self-efficacy, and self-esteem, have appeared in a wide array of research areas in foreign language teaching such as works on affect, autonomy, identity, individual differences, and motivation (e.g Dửrnyei 2005; Williams et al 2004; Yang 1999; Yashima et al 2004, cited in Mercer, 2008) In her journal article, Mercer (2008) made a clear distinction among the three key self-constructs, i.e self-esteem, self-concept, and self-efficacy

Citing the work of Valentine & DuBois (2005, p 55), Mercer explained that all of the three above concepts share “a common emphasis on an individual's beliefs in his or her attributes and abilities as a person”; however, they are different in terms of (1) degree of specificity with which they are measured, and (2) the relative importance of the cognitive and evaluative elements Firstly, self-esteem is seen as a more global construct, which focuses on an individual’s overall evaluation of his/her worth or value as a person, and thus considered as the broadest and most evaluative of the three constructs In this aspect, “self- esteem” and “self-worth” are often used interchangeably (Harter, 1999, p 5, cited in Mercer, 2008) In contrast, self-efficacy is more cognitive in nature and more concerned with expectancy beliefs in one's perceived capability to perform a certain task in a very specific domain (Bandura, 1997) such as managing a classroom or motivating students

Self-concept, on the other hand, contains both cognitive and affective elements, and is considered to be less context-dependent than self-efficacy It is concerned with an individual's self-perceptions in a wider domain (for example, teaching English as a foreign language) than is the case for self-efficacy (Mercer, 2008)

Self-efficacy should also be distinguished from “self-perception”, which is an individual’s knowledge of their own “attitudes, emotions, and other internal states” through inference from observations of their own behaviour and/ or the circumstances in which this behaviour occurs (Bem, 1972, p 2) Meanwhile, as elucidated above, self- efficacy is “more cognitive in nature and more concerned with expectancy beliefs in an individual's perceived capability to perform a certain task in a very specific domain”

Overall, self-efficacy is consistently defined as a person’s belief, assessment, or judgement of their own capabilities to design and carry out context-specific sequences of actions to perform a specific task or to succeed in a particular situation (Bandura, 1977,

1986, 1995; Pajares and Miller, 1994; Pajares, 2002) The concept should be distinguished from other related concepts such as “self-esteem”, “self-concept”, and “self-perception”

For the purpose of this research, self-efficacy, sense of self-efficacy, or self-efficacy belief, used interchangeably, will adopt the above definition

The Role of Self-Efficacy in human functioning

In their lives, humans can set goals, identify desirable changes & attainment; however, there is a big difference between identifying goals, desirable changes, and attainment to realizing those goals, carry out changes, and accomplish tasks Bandura and others suggest that an individual’s sense of self-efficacy can greatly contribute to how the person approaches goals, tasks, and challenges (Cherry, 2011) Self-efficacy beliefs can influence thought patterns and emotions that in turn affects the amount of effort people expend in pursuit of goals, their persistence in the face of hardship, rebound from obstructions, and the amount of control over events that affect their lives (Bandura, 1986,

1993, 1996, 1997, cited in Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy, 1994) Generally, people with a strong sense of self-efficacy: view challenging problems as tasks to be mastered; develop deeper interest in the activities in which they participate; form a stronger sense of commitment to their interests and activities; recover quickly from setbacks and disappointments Meanwhile, people with a weak sense of self-efficacy: avoid challenging tasks; believe that difficult tasks and situations are beyond their capabilities; focus on personal failings and negative outcomes; quickly lose confidence in personal abilities (Bandura, 1994)

Bandura (1997) proposed that self-efficacy beliefs are “powerful predictors of behaviour” This proposition is supported by his observation: “People regulate their level and distribution of effort in accordance with the effects they expect their actions to have

As a result, their behaviour is better predicted from their beliefs than from the actual consequences of their actions” (1986, p 129, cited in Henson, 2001) as well as by other research literature (Henson, 2001)

Self-efficacy beliefs can develop from four main sources According to Bandura, the four principle sources of information which influence self-efficacy are enactive or mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological and emotional states In other words, they are “performance attainments; vicarious experiences of observing the performances of others; verbal persuasion and allied types of social influences that one possesses certain capabilities; and physiological states from which people partly judge their capability, strength, and vulnerability” (Nolan, 2009)

Bandura (1994) contends that mastery experiences are the strongest source of developing a person’s sense of self-efficacy Actual achievement of a designated task can develop a strong sense of efficacy to accomplish similar prospective tasks; in contrast, repeated failure can undermine self-efficacy beliefs, especially if failures occur before a sense of efficacy is firmly established (Bandura, 1998; Zeldin and Pajares, 2000)

Vicarious experiences, which stem from witnessing other people’s success or failure when they perform a task, are another important source of self-efficacy According to Bandura,

“Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort raises observers' beliefs that they too possess the capabilities master comparable activities to succeed” (1994) The third source of self-efficacy, verbal persuasion, pertains to the idea that people could be persuaded to believe that they have the skills and capabilities to succeed An individual dependable Physiological and emotional states constitute the last source of self- efficacy and refers to people’s physical and affective condition in task completion, e.g moods, emotional states, physical reactions, and stress levels, which can affect a person’s feeling about his/her capabilities in specific situations For instance, feelings of relaxation are signals of self-assurance and, therefore, enhance self-efficacy, while a racing heart beat or high blood pressure can lead to low efficacy beliefs However, Bandura noted that “it is not the sheer intensity of emotional and physical reactions that is important but rather how they are perceived and interpreted” (1994) Typically, self- efficacy beliefs are enhanced by optimism and positive mood, while depression and despair weaken them (Nolan, 2009; Cherry, 2011)

Demographic factors that affect teacher self-efficacy

In reality, there are many factors or variables which can have possible effects on teachers’ belief of their capability to succeed in a particular teaching situation However, for the purpose of this paper, the factors of teaching experience and gender will be looked upon thoroughly

1.2.1 Teacher self-efficacy and teaching experience

As previously mentioned, Bandura (1977, 1986) believes mastery experience is the most important source of self-efficacy, implying that success and accomplishment can develop a strong sense of efficacy; whereas, failure can weaken it Since throughout their years of teaching, teachers usually gain vast experience of successful and unsuccessful performances, this assumption has facilitated in-depth research into how teachers who have had different lengths of teaching time perceive their teaching efficacy (e.g., Penrose, Perry

& Ball, 2007; Hoy & Woolfolk, 1993; Moran & Hay, 2002; Imants & Brabander, 1996;

Fives & Looney, 2009; Fives, 2010; Soodak & Podell, 1996; Campbell, 1996; Yan, 2006;

According to Karimvand (2011), some studies have shown a positive correlation between years of experience and efficacy beliefs of teachers, in which seasoned teacher reported higher level of self-efficacy then their novice counterparts; and new teachers in their first year of teaching had lower levels of perceived efficacy for instructional practices and classroom management than did teachers with more experience (Lin and Tsai, 1999;

Liu et al., 2007; Wolters and Daugherty, 2007, cited in Karimvand, 2011) The results of Akbari & Moradkhani’s research on Iranian English teachers’ self-efficacy have also showed that experienced teachers (with more than three years of teaching experience) had

“a significantly higher level of global efficacy, efficacy for student engagement, efficacy for classroom management, and efficacy for instructional strategies compared to their novice counterparts” (2008)

However, some studies have reported results which: (1) contradicted the ones reported above, (2) showed mixed results, or (3) showed no significant relationship between teacher’s years of experience and their efficacy beliefs For instance, the work of Woolfolk (1990) and Weinstein (1988) showed contrasting results that novice teachers were found to have high personal and professional efficacy Gorrell & Dharmadasa (1994) showed mixed results which indicated, although pre-service teachers reported higher efficacy for implementing new methods of instruction, experienced teachers reported higher efficacy for classroom management, organization of instruction, and impact on students Some others (e.g., Cruz & Arias, 2007; Gaith & Yaghi, 1997; Hoy & Woolfolk, 1990; Taimalu & Õim, 2005; cited in Akbari & Moradkhani, 2010) intended to find the difference between the efficacy of prospective and in-service teachers They concluded that as teachers enter the profession and gain more experience, their beliefs in their ability to control disturbing factors outside the classroom context, known as general teaching efficacy (GTE), decreases, whereas their beliefs in their own ability to teach within the classroom context, called personal teaching efficacy (PTE) improves Finally, some researchers have also found no significant relationship between teachers’ years of experience and their efficacy beliefs (e.g., Guskey, 1987)

In light of the above brief review of relevant literature, it is difficult to conclude that there is a similar direction regarding the relationship of the two variables, teacher perceived efficacy and teaching experience

1.2.2 Teacher self-efficacy and gender

Gender is another demographic variable that might influence teacher’s professional lives, in general, and their beliefs of their capabilities to succeed in specific teaching situations, in particular According to Karimvand (2011), social relations and the dominance of either gender (usually male) can affect teachers’ lives Female professionals are usually subordinate to male authorities in educational settings where professional interactions are usually characterized by marginalization of women (Bartlett, 2005; Lin et al., 2004, cited in Karimvand, 2011) Since the social cognitive theory contends that efficacy beliefs are constructed and reconstructed through people’s social experiences and interactions, the impacts of unequal power dynamics existing in the field of TESOL and resulting practises – explicit or implicit – are undeniable Thus, examining the effects of gender on teachers’ perceived efficacy has proved to be an important area in the TESOL field

However, on reviewing the studies which have focuses on the relationship between gender and teachers' sense of efficacy, a great number of discrepancies can be seen Imants and De Brabander (1996), using a modified version of the Teacher Efficacy Scale (TES), concluded that gender influences teachers’ self-efficacy More precisely, their results showed that male elementary teachers’ level of efficacy beliefs for pupil-oriented and school-oriented tasks seemed to be higher than their female counterparts In contrast, both the work of Cheung (2006) and Karimvand (2011) found that female teachers have significantly more general efficacy than male teachers, while it is worth noting that female teachers in their studies were either generally older or had longer teaching experience than male teachers Finally, some other studies, such as Ghaith and Shaaban (1999), Tschannen- Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2002), and Wilson et al (2004), showed that gender has no signification effect on teachers’ self-efficacy

Overall, studies focused on teaching experience and teachers’ self-efficacy failed to show a consistent trend or general direction in which teaching experience, based on years of teaching, might correlate with teachers’ efficacy beliefs With regards to studies on differences between the two genders in terms of teacher self-efficacy, the picture is even murkier; first of all, these studies are few (Karimvand, 2011) and, second, as explained above, some discrepancies and opposing observations still exist among them.

Dimensions of teacher self-efficacy

Research on teacher self-efficacy has shown that this is a multi-dimensional constructs Although researchers in this particular niche area have developed and/or used different instruments, their findings have unanimously yielded common dimensions of teacher self-efficacy

In their study exploring dimensions of teacher self-efficacy and relations with strain factors, perceived collective teacher efficacy, and teacher burnout, Skaalvik & Skaalvik

(2007) developed and factor analyzed the Norwegian Teacher Self-Efficacy Scale Their analysis supported the conceptualization of teacher self-efficacy as a multidimensional construct The authors discovered strong evidence for 6 separate but correlated dimensions of teacher self-efficacy, which were termed Instruction, Adapting Education to Individual Students' Needs, Motivating Students, Keeping Discipline, Cooperating With Colleagues and Parents, and Coping With Changes and Challenges A strong 2nd-order self-efficacy factor underlying the 6 dimensions was also found The construct of teacher self-efficacy was conceptually distinguished from perceived collective teacher efficacy and external control It was strongly related to collective teacher efficacy and teacher burnout

Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001, cited in Cheung 2008) developed their own Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale with 24 items, then extracted three variables, each with 8 items These three variables are named efficacy for instructional strategies, efficacy for classroom management and efficacy for student engagement

Karimvand (2011), in a recent study on Iranian teachers’ self-efficacy used the questionnaire of TEBS-Self (Teachers' Efficacy Beliefs System- Self) previously developed by Dellinger, Bobbett, Oliver, & Ellett (2008) The scale was factored into four components of Accommodating Individual Differences (AID), Positive Classroom Climate (PCC), Monitoring and Feedback for Learning (MFL), and Managing Learning Routines (MLR) Since the factor structure used by Dellinger et al (2008) and Karimvand (2011) appears to encompass all other dimensions of the construct of teacher self-efficacy employed by other researchers, it is also utilized in the current research which used the questionnaire developed by Dellinger et al (2008) as well

The previous parts have laid out the theoretical foundation needed for the study

Specifically, the key concepts, i.e self-efficacy, teacher self-efficacy, have been defined; the factors that affect those psychological constructs have been analysed; and literature pertinent to self-efficacy and teacher self-efficacy has been reviewed The following section will shed light on the issue of non-native English speaker teachers and teacher perceived efficacy.

Non-native English speaker teacher & Teacher self-efficacy

1.4.1 Non-native vs Native English speaker teacher

The native and non-native speaker dichotomy has direct relevance and implications in the field of English language teaching Since the early 1990’s the notion of native and non-native English-speaking teachers has emerged in the literature of the field (Brutt- Griffler, & Samimy, 1999; Davies, 1991; Medgyes, 1994; Phillipson, 1992, cited in Liu, 2009; Liu, 2009; Graddol, 2007) According to Liu (2009), many researchers have challenged the view that the native speaker (NS) is the ideal language teacher, claiming that non-native speakers (NNS) can be trained to gain abilities that are associated with NSs (i.e fluency, correct usage of idiomatic expressions, and knowledge about the cultural connotation of English) Also, as NNESTs themselves have gone through the language learning process, they can more likely predict potential difficulties for their students, and know how to help them learn based on their own language learning experiences (Tang,

1997) This learning process of NNES teachers is, according to Phillipson (1992, in Liu,

2009), considered a “valuable quality” that NSs cannot emulate Medgyes (1994) also acknowledges the strengths of NNESTs, saying that NNESTs can:

1 Provide a good learner model for imitation;

2 Teach language learning strategies more effectively;

3 Supply learners with more information about the English language;

4 Anticipate and prevent language difficulties better;

5 Be more empathetic to the needs and problems of learners; and

6 Make use of the learners’ mother tongue

However, because of the limited access to native English-speaking cultural experiences, and lack of authentic input, the employment of Native English-Speaking Teachers (NESTs) to join the teaching faculty still proves to be popular in EFL settings

This can create a sense of native superiority On the other hand, the NNESTs have long endured what is called the inferiority complex; the belief that they will never match the linguistics standards so valuable in their profession, such as a native U.S or U.K accent, which in turn will lead them to believe that their interlanguage, the knowledge of their L2, is perpetually inadequate Thus, holding the assumption that in order to meet the high expectations of their students and to prove themselves worthy of being in the profession, NNESTs must work harder than their NEST counterparts (Liu, 2009)

At this stage, there is an interesting question of whether NNESTs’ sense of efficacy, their beliefs in their capability to successfully handle a specific prospective teaching situation, is affected by this dichotomy of nativeness As Bandura (1993) have demonstrated, teachers’ self-efficacy can impact the environment teachers create in their classroom, their specific instructional practices, their orientation toward the educational process, and, subsequently, their students’ academic achievement Therefore, it is worthwhile to examine NNESTs’ efficacy beliefs in comparison with their NEST counterparts

The following part is a review of literature related to the issue of non-native English speaker teacher self-efficacy

1.4.2 Non-native English speaker teacher self-efficacy

The growing number of non-native English speaker teachers in EFL as well as ESL contexts around the world has raised so much interest in issues related to non-native English speaking teachers (NNEST) in the field of TESOL that a proliferation of papers, theses, dissertations, and publications has been dedicated to the topic Specifically, the issues of NNESTs have been examined from chiefly three different areas of interest, which are the self-perceptions of NNESTs (e.g Amin, 1997; Medgyes, 1983, 1994; Reves &

Medgyes, 1994), the credibility of NNESTs (e.g Amin, 1997, 1999; Braine, 1999;

Thomas, 1999), and the meaning of the label NNES educator and other parties’ perceptions of NNES educators (e.g., Hansen, 2004; Inbar, 2001; J Liu, 1999, 2004) (in Kamhi-Stein,

2004) However, studies on the the self-efficacy beliefs of NNESTs are few; of the available literature, work from researchers examining NNES teachers in the context of Iran can be observed (Eslami & Fatahi, 2008; Akbari & Moradkhani, 2010; Karimvand, 2011)

Eslami & Fatahi (2008), using a modified version of Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES) (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001) and two sub-scales – self- reported proficiency and pedagogical strategies (Chacón, 2005, cited in Eslami & Fatahi,

2008), examined the self-efficacy beliefs of EFL NNESTs in Iranian in relation to their perceived English language proficiency and instructional strategies They found that teachers' efficacy beliefs were positively correlated with self-reported English proficiency and communicative-based teaching strategies Which means the more efficacious the teachers felt, the higher their perceived level of English proficiency was and the more inclined they were to use communicative-based strategies

Akbari & Moradkhani (2010), who also used the Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale, examined 447 NNESTs from a single English institute in Tehran, Iran in terms of the possible relationships between the demographic factors, i.e experience & academic degree, and teacher efficacy Their results showed that teacher experience had a positive relationship with NNESTs’ self-efficacy whereas teachers’ English related academic degrees did not have significant impacts on their efficacy beliefs More precisely, experienced teachers (with more than three years of teaching) had a significantly higher level of global efficacy, efficacy for student engagement, efficacy for classroom management, and efficacy for instructional strategies compared to their novice counterparts In contrast, teachers who had English-related academic degrees did not enjoy significantly higher levels of efficacy except in the subcomponent of student engagement

Karimvand (2011) in a similar strand with Akbari & Moradkhani (2010), explored Iranian NNESTs’ perceived efficacy relative to their teaching experience and gender, using the Teachers' Efficacy Beliefs System- Self scale (TEBS-Self) (Dellinger, Bobbett, Oliver,

& Ellett, 2008) The results also showed that experienced teachers (with more than or equal to three and a half years of teaching) had significantly more positive efficacy perceptions than teachers with less than or equal to three years of experience Also, the female teachers in Karimvand study were found to have “significantly higher self-efficacy than the male participants on the whole questionnaire and two components of it.”

In light of all the reviewed literature above, there is, in fact, much research which has been carried out to examine teacher efficacy from different angles (e.g Tschannen-Moran, Woolfok Hoy, & Hoy, 1998; Henson, 2001; Shaughnessy, 2004); however, little has been done to investigate the perceived efficacy of NNESTs in EFL contexts in relation to the efficacy beliefs of their NEST counterparts Thus, this research sets out to investigate NNESTs’ efficacy beliefs in comparison with their NEST counterparts in the hope of bridging the research gap, reaching recommendations for the betterment of NNESTs and providing the support they need to develop their mastery experiences, which in turn are the major sources of their perceived self-efficacy.

The context of teaching at the Faculty of English Language Teacher Training,

Firstly, regarding the context of teaching and learning English at tertiary level in Vietnam, English is introduced both as a discipline and as a subject As a discipline, students study to get a BA, MA, or doctorate in English and become teachers, interpreters/translators, or researchers in the field of English language teaching methodology or linguistics In Vietnam, there are currently four tertiary institutions which provide programs in English as a major field (The University of Hanoi, Da Nang University, Hue University, and The University of Languages and International Studies- Vietnam National University, Hanoi) Among the four, University of Languages and International Studies-Vietnam National University, Hanoi (ULIS) is the only institution to fully offer undergraduate, graduate, as well as doctoral programs in English (Hoang, 2011)

This implies the high responsibility and commitment to quality teaching and learning from ULIS In fact, ULIS is one of the most prestigious institutions in Vietnam for language teaching, learning, and research

The Faculty of English Language Teacher Training, which specialises in training teacher and interpreters/translators of English at the undergraduate level, is a faculty under

ULIS Regarding teaching staff, teachers at the FELTE, who are all Vietnamese NNESTs, are methodologically trained in ELT and are highly qualified in terms of English proficiency, linguistic competence – every teacher being recruited has to undergo English language tests & professional interviews – and academic degree – which the basic degree requirement for employment is an honours BA degree In addition, the faculty annually hires from 3 to 4 native-speaker teachers from the U.S., U.K., New Zealand, etc through ELIC, an organisation which recruits native English speaker teachers to teach English in Asia

At FELTE, demographically, the female teachers outnumber their male counterpart and most of the teachers are young with less than three years of experience This is possibly due to the fact that there are more female students pursuing ELT career in Vietnam, and FELTE recruitment policy of employing honours BA holders respectively

Regarding professional development, teachers at FELTE enjoy many opportunities for professional development, such as participating in departmental workshops, seminars, international conferences, annually conducting research in their field of interest, and most noticeably, joining FELTE mentoring program The FELTE mentoring program, initiated since 2007 and organised at the grassroots division level, mainly aims at helping novice teachers get a head start in their teaching career (in terms of professional development, attitude, job moral, etc.) and providing seasoned teachers with rejuvenating experiences

The main activities of the program are: 1) Mentor (teachers with more teaching experience) giving feedback on mentee’s (beginning teachers) lesson plans; 2) Observing each other’s classes as scheduled; 3) Giving feedback on teaching methodology and class management; 4) Mentee writing reflections after each class observation; 5) Mentor writing evaluation about mentee’s performance and reporting to the program coordinator (Ngo &

How does this study fit into other research?

Having examined the relevant literature on the research topic, i.e teacher self- efficacy and NNESTs around the world and in the context of the Faculty of English

Language Teacher Education (ULIS, VNUH), this section discusses how the present study fits into the area of investigation

In the first place, the present study seeks to find out the self-efficacy beliefs of both NNESTs and NESTs at the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education, ULIS, VNUH in relation to the demographic factors: teaching experience and gender This is in line with current trends of research in TESOL under the theme of teacher motivation and its subtheme, teacher self-efficacy Furthermore, as contended by Bandura (1993) and many others, teachers’ self-efficacy can impact the environment teachers create in their classroom, their specific instructional practices, their orientation toward the educational process, and, subsequently, their students’ academic achievement Thus, examining NNESTs’ efficacy beliefs proves to be valuable in the field of TESOL in general, and in terms of teacher professional development in particular

Secondly, it appears that, so far, there has been little research on NNES teachers’ self-efficacy in EFL contexts in Vietnam in general, and at FELTE in particular Around the world, other research on teacher self-efficacy has mainly focused either on NESTs (e.g

Tschannen-Moran, Woolfok Hoy, & Hoy, 1998; Paneque & Barbetta, 2005; Henson 2011) or NNESTs (e.g Chacón, 2005; Eslami & Fatahi, 2008; Akbari & Moradkhani, 2010;

Karimvand, 2011), while the current research attempts to investigate both NNESTs and NESTs’ sense of self-efficacy in the hope of producing exhaustive data to the self-efficacy beliefs of these two parties In this way, the present study supplements those studies

Given the context-specific nature of the construct of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1995) and the scarcity of research in this significant area in Vietnam, the researcher was motivated to conduct the present study to contribute to the available knowledge about the place of teacher self-efficacy beliefs in ELT, in general, and EFL education in Vietnam, in particular More precisely, this study was conducted in order to explore possible effects of teaching experience and gender as well as their interaction effect on Vietnamese NNESTs' self-efficacy and NESTs’ self-efficacy, in general, and its different dimensions as conceptualized by Dellinger, Bobbett, Dianne and Chad (2008)

To sum up, in light of the literature review, the current study on teacher self-efficacy at FELTE, ULIS, VNUH is worth doing as it is in line with current trends of study on self- efficacy beliefs of teachers around the world Furthermore, it is useful and beneficial to FELTE and English language teaching institutions alike as it will provide insights into NNES teachers’ sense of efficacy and help further improve the quality of English teaching – learning and training of future NNES teachers.

Summary

This chapter has shed light on the relevant literature which forms the theoretical basis of the study More precisely, the chapter has reviewed literature pertinent to the conceptualisation of “self-efficacy” and “teacher self-efficacy”, “the social cognitive theory”, which laid the theoretical foundations for research On the practical side, the chapter has examined the issues of “non-native English speaker teacher” and “NNESTs’ self-efficacy It ended with a brief review of related studies hence disclosed the research gap and justified the practical aims and objectives of the present study

In the next chapter, the methodology for the investigation to find answers to the research questions set forth in this study will be presented.

METHODOLOGY

Research questions

The current study sets out to find answers to the following research questions:

1 What is the self-efficacy of NNESTs?

2 What is the self-efficacy of NESTs?

3 What is the relationship between the self-efficacy of these two parties in terms of gender and teaching experience?

Sampling and Participants

The study employed a non-probability strategy for sampling as defined by Lund Research Ltd (2010) as it has to rely on the consent to participate of the subjects that is NESTs and NNESTs at FELTE The specific procedures employed was purposive sampling and snowball sampling, i.e a technique for developing a research sample in which current study subjects recruit future subjects from among their acquaintances; thus, the sample group seems to grow like a rolling snowball (Eslami & Fatahi, 2008) Purposive sampling was employed to recruit NNESTs participants in order to serve the purpose of the study, which is to investigate the efficacy beliefs of NNESTs who teach at FELTE, ULIS, VNUH in particular As for the NEST counterpart, snowball sampling was applied because

I of the relatively small number of NESTs at FELTE The unique nature of the sample and its impact on the results are further discussed in Chapter 3 where the demographic results are reported

The participants of the present study were 40 EFL teachers, among them 34 were NNESTs working at FELTE, ULIS, VNUH, and 6 NESTs working at FELTE and other English language institutions in Hanoi In general, their years of teaching experience ranged from less than 1 year to more than 30 years The NNESTs had at least a BA TEFL or a BA in English language, translation, & interpretation The NEST counterpart all had relevant BA ELT academic degrees or postgraduate TESOL certificates.

Instrumentation

On reviewing the literature, it is revealed that many researchers in the field have developed different scales to measure teacher self-efficacy based on their justified conceptualisation of the concept (Dellinger et al., 2008; Henson, 2001; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998; Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001) Many studies on teacher self- efficacy utilise these scale, some of which were reported above However, the adequacy of most of these scales in the measuring of teacher self-efficacy was questioned by Dellinger et al (2008); they argued:

First, the measure should clearly, and accurately, reflect the meaning of self-efficacy Second, the measure must assess teachers’ self- efficacy beliefs in the context in which the beliefs are formed Third, the specific tasks selected for the measure should be meaningful (p

Based on these assumptions, Dellinger et al (2008) developed their own scale, which in their opinion had certain strengths compared to previously developed instruments

Dellinger et al contended that their instrument was developed based on a conceptualisation of self-efficacy that is firmly grounded in Social Cognitive Theory In defining “teacher self-efficacy”, they have tried to avoid confusing the construct of self-efficacy with other related and relatively more stable self-constructs such as self-esteem, self-concept, locus of control, and outcome expectancy Also, the context-specific nature of efficacy beliefs has been taken into consideration in their developing of the items in their instrument, called the Teacher Efficacy Beliefs Scale-Self

Specifically, their tool includes 31 items assessed with a four-point Likert Scale (1=Weak, 2=Moderate, 3=Strong, 4=Very strong) The following justifies the choice of TEBS-S

Teachers’ Efficacy Beliefs System-Self (TEBS-S)

The TEBS-S was chosen to measure teacher’s perceptions of teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs in this study because of the relevant nature of the items to the research context

Furthermore, as stated above, the design of the items was grounded on a firm theoretical basis which is the Social Cognitive Theory with differentiation from other related concepts of self-constructs such as self-esteem, self-concept, locus of control, and outcome expectancy

More precisely, the 31 item survey requests respondents to make judgments about the strength of their personal beliefs in their capacity to organize and successfully carry out specific teaching tasks on a 4-point scale (1=weak beliefs in my ability, 2=somewhat strong beliefs in my ability, 3=strong beliefs in my ability, and 4=very strong beliefs in my ability) For the purpose of this study, three more questions were added to the questionnaire, probing responses to participants’ gender, teaching experience (in terms of year of teaching), and nationality (See Appendix 1)

The 31 items were initially grouped into four dimensions according to Dellinger et al (2008)

 Accommodating Individual Differences (AID) (Items: 1, 2, 12, 13, 14, 27, 28)

 Maintaining a Positive Classroom Climate (PCC) (Items: 3, 4, 5)

 Monitoring and Feedback for Learning (MFL) (Items: 6, 7, 8, 9, 24, 30, 31)

 Managing Learning Routines (MLR) (Items: 10, 11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23)

Then, following the call from Henson (2001) to use confirmatory factor analysis to validate the measuring tools used in teacher self-efficacy research, the instrument was factor analysed using principal component, varimax method with eigen value greater than

1 for validation Four factors with loading greater than 40 were extracted Analysis of the four newly emerged dimensions shows some different from the ones extracted by Karimvand (2011) who used the same questionnaire from Dellinger (2008) MFL and AID enjoyed the highest level in terms of Cronbach’s alpha while PCC had the lowest On the contrary, in the present study, PCC and MLR enjoyed the highest level in terms of Cronbach’s alpha while MFL had the lowest These could show differences in self- efficiency among Iranian and Vietnamese EFL teachers Table 1 reports Karimvand’s

Accommodating Individual Differences (AID) (Items: 1, 2, 12, 13 and 27)

Maintaining a Positive Classroom Climate (PCC) (Items: 8, 9 and 31)

Monitoring and Feedback for Learning (MFL) (Items: 16, 17, 18 and 22)

Managing Learning Routines (MLR) (Items: 3, 4 and 5)

Table 1 - Reliability of Karimvand’s (2011) instrument

Table 2 below reported the scale and establishment of the construct validity of the TEBS-S In this study, respective Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for each dimension also indicates a relatively high level of internal consistency reliability although not as high as the one reported by Karimvand (2011) It may be due to the much smaller sample in the present study compared to Karimvand’s study

Accommodating Individual Differences (AID) (Items: 27, 28)

Maintaining a Positive Classroom Climate (PCC) (Items: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 12)

Monitoring and Feedback for Learning (MFL) (Items: 7, 22, 24)

Managing Learning Routines (MLR) (Items: 20, 21, 23, 25)

Table 2 - Cronbach's alpha Coefficients for the TEBS-S

Procedures of data collection

The procedure of data collection comprises two main stages as described below

In this initial stage, researcher had conducted a review of relevant literature and available teacher self-efficacy scales, taking into consideration the specific EFL context at FELTE, ULIS, VNUH Finally, the TEBS-S scale was chosen for the reasons mentioned above Also, at this stage, necessary preparation for the sampling procedure was made, such as the consideration of survey sample selection and appointments for the questionnaire survey with teacher participants

This stage involves the administration of survey questionnaires to the teacher participants For the FELTE NNESTs, questionnaires were administered through two channels, face-to-face contact and through email, with ethical assurance that their information remained confidential For direct contact, teachers were invited to take part in the survey on a voluntary basis, any uncertainty regarding the questionnaire items were immediately clarified by the researcher The survey questionnaire took them on average 20 minutes to complete On the other hand, the research also sent emails to individual FELTE teachers who could not be contacted directly Participants were allowed a one-week time frame to complete the questionnaire, in the form of an MS Word document attachment, through email; however, on average, it took them only from one to two days to send in their responses

For the NESTs, currently, there are four NESTs teaching at FELTE that the researcher could have contact with The researcher had directly asked for their agreement to participate in the survey before sending the questionnaire to them through email Two other NESTs from other EFL teaching contexts also participated in the survey through the reference of one FELTE NEST.

Procedures of data analysis

The purpose of this research study is to investigate the relationship between NNESTs and NESTs’ self-efficacy beliefs, in relation to gender and teaching experience Data collected were categorised into two major groups NNESTs (G1) and NESTs (G2) and analysed quantitatively using the free open-source statistical software PSPP version 17

More precisely, collected data were coded by respondent, item, and item dimension (detailed coding scheme can be found in Appendix 2) and inputted into PSPP v.17 Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to find answers to the three research questions:

1) What is the self-efficacy of NNESTs?

2) What is the self-efficacy of NESTs?

3) What is the relationship between the self-efficacy of these two parties in terms of gender and teaching experience

In summary, the statistical analyses in the study included the following procedures:

 Descriptive statistics were used to describe the demographic and professional characteristics of the respondents in the sample Summary statistics are reported for the total sample, including means, standard deviations and ranges of scores for each item for all demographic, independent, and dependent variables

 Factor analysis was calculated to determine the relationships between the self- efficacy beliefs of NNESTs and NESTs on four psychometric dimensions of the TEBS-S identified by Dellinger et al (2008), namely Accommodating Individual Differences (AID), Maintaining a Positive Classroom Climate (CC), Monitoring and Feedback for Learning (MFL), and Managing Learning Routines (MLR)

 Multivariate analysis using independent samples T-test was used to find answers to the three research questions.

Summary

This chapter reported the methodology employed in the current M.A thesis in terms of the participants and sampling method, and the procedures for data collection and data analysis Firstly, the research questions were restated to act as a guideline for the whole methodological approach Then the sampling and instrumentation were described in detail Finally, the coding scheme, statistical procedures was explained and the research questions reemphasised.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Results of construct validation of the TEBS-Self

To make sure that the data collected through TEBS-Self can be relied upon, the researcher used factor analysis to validate the instrument Using principal component method with criterion of Eigenvalue greater than 1, four components were extracted from the data Table 3 reports the results Using a more stringent criterion of factor loading greater than 40 (Karimvand, 2011), 16 items were retained for further analysis (see Table

Internal consistency reliability of the scale and its components were calculated through Cronbach's Alpha It was found that the scale enjoyed a reliability of 93

Reliabilities of the components of the scale were also found to be high More precisely, Accommodating Individual Differences (AID), Positive Classroom Climate (PCC), Monitoring and Feedback for Learning (MFL), and Managing Learning Routines (MLR) were estimated to have reliabilities of 0.80, 0.84, 0.75, and 0.84 respectively (see Table 2 in the previous chapter) All results reported in this chapter were based on the scale that has been validated as above

Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of

Squared Loadings Rotation Sums of Squared

Table 3 - TEBS-Self factor analysis results – 4 extracted components

1 2 3 4 se1 22 -.02 16 52 se2 13 11 11 54 se3 01 09 27 42 se4 -.05 23 -.10 40 se5 16 09 -.03 45 se6 23 36 -.07 11 se7 02 46 12 16 se8 19 34 -.06 17 se9 17 35 -.25 -.02 se10 11 04 07 40 se11 39 02 02 21 se12 25 04 -.15 53 se13 39 21 13 22 se14 38 -.04 33 39 se15 14 21 10 34 se16 21 21 -.14 23 se17 30 11 11 31 se18 14 23 22 39 se19 39 16 13 18 se20 74 05 -.12 05 se21 57 19 01 21 se22 12 53 00 07 se23 42 32 24 01 se24 -.13 60 21 -.02 se25 66 12 13 20 se26 31 39 37 22 se27 10 -.05 50 06 se28 -.01 03 60 06 se29 24 23 27 15 se30 03 32 00 13 se31 18 39 -.02 04 Table 4 - TEBS-Self factor analysis results – Factor loadings

Using a more stringent criterion of factor loading greater than 40 (Karimvand,

2011), 16 items were retained for further analysis (see Table 2).

Sample characteristics

There were 40 ELT teachers agreeing to take part in the research Among them, 33 (accounting for 82.5%) were female, 7 (17.5%) were female Figure 2 illustrates the result

In terms of teaching experience, 72.5 per cent of the sample (n)) has been teaching English for at least 3 years 11 teachers (27.5%) have been teaching up to three years Figure 3 presents the information

Figure 3 - Teaching experience of the sample teachers

Regarding nationality, Vietnamese teachers occupied 85% (n4) of the sample 5 (15%) were from America and 1 from the UK This group was coded Others for further analysis

Figure 4 - Nationalities of the sample teachers

Participant profile

Since the aim of this paper is to investigate NNESTs’ perceived efficacy in relation to their NEST counterpart In further analysis, teacher participants were divided into two major groups based on their nationality: Vietnamese or NNESTs (Group 1) and Others, e.g UK, US or NESTs (Group 2) The following table presents a demographic profile of the two groups

Variable Group 1 (NNESTs) Group 2 (NESTs)

Equal to or more than three years 25 (~73%)

Equal to or more than three years = 4 (~67%)

Based on their years of teaching experience, the participants were divided into two groups, those who had taught less than three years and those who had taught from three years or more (with the longest period of teaching being more than 30 years) To avoid using the highly subjective labels of experienced or inexperienced, the researcher chose to refer to them as having “Less than three years teaching experience” and “Equal to or more than three years”

Regarding gender, while Group 2 had a rather balanced proportion of gender, Group

1 had noticeably more female teachers than male teachers This fact is due to the

“inherent” demographic nature at FELTE, in which female teachers usually outnumber male teachers This might have some possible impacts on the results of the study

However, according to the literature review, many researchers have found that gender does not seem to have much significant impact on teachers’ perceived efficacy (Ghaith and Shaaban, 1999; Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy, 2002; and Wilson et al.,2004)

With teaching experience, it can be seen that most of the teacher participants have had equal to or more than three years of teaching time (approximately 73% in Group 1, and 67% in group 2) This might indicate a higher level of efficacy beliefs among the teachers, as research has shown that there is a positive correlation between teaching experience and efficacy beliefs

In this section of the study, the results of the descriptive statistics for the self-efficacy beliefs the two groups of NNESTs and NESTs are reported.

Research question 1: What is the self-efficacy of NNESTs?

The following table summarises the general efficacy beliefs of NNESTs Overall, NNESTs have the highest level of efficacy beliefs in items 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23,

29, 30, 31 (these items received an overall mean equal to or higher than 3, i.e strong to very strong) with the highest endorsed efficacy belief in items 8 and 9 (the mean of which were 3.32 and 3.29 respectively); while the efficacy belief items 27, 28 received the lowest level of perceived efficacy (2.24 & 1.97 respectively, which translate to “weak to relatively moderate”)

Nationality 1 Vietnamese Valid cases = 34; cases with missing value(s) = 0

Variable N Mean Std Dev Minimum Maximum se1 34 2.82 67 2.00 4.00 se2 34 2.56 66 1.00 4.00 se3 34 3.03 72 1.00 4.00 se4 34 3.15 70 2.00 4.00 se5 34 3.24 70 2.00 4.00 se6 34 2.97 63 2.00 4.00 se7 34 2.71 63 2.00 4.00 se8 34 3.32 59 2.00 4.00 se9 34 3.29 58 2.00 4.00 se10 34 2.91 67 1.00 4.00 se11 34 2.97 67 2.00 4.00 se12 34 2.88 69 2.00 4.00 se13 34 2.74 75 1.00 4.00 se14 34 2.91 79 1.00 4.00 se15 34 2.94 60 2.00 4.00 se16 34 3.06 69 2.00 4.00 se17 34 3.15 70 1.00 4.00 se18 34 3.24 78 1.00 4.00 se19 34 2.82 72 1.00 4.00 se20 34 2.68 81 1.00 4.00 se21 34 2.71 76 1.00 4.00 se22 34 3.15 61 2.00 4.00 se23 34 3.03 72 1.00 4.00 se24 34 2.79 81 1.00 4.00 se25 34 2.65 77 1.00 4.00 se26 34 2.85 82 1.00 4.00 se27 34 2.24 74 1.00 3.00 se28 34 1.97 76 1.00 4.00 se29 34 3.00 60 2.00 4.00 se30 34 3.18 52 2.00 4.00 se31 34 3.03 63 2.00 4.00 Table 6 - NNESTs’ general efficacy beliefs (N4)

In order to examine this data in more exhaustive detail, it is useful to revise the psychometric dimensions of self-efficacy proposed by Dellinger et al (2008) in the light of the scale just validated in this study (see Section 2.2) The compute syntax was used to set up the four sub-scales of Accommodating Individual Differences (AID) from items 27 and 28; Maintaining a Positive Classroom Climate (PCC) from items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, and 12;

Monitoring and Feedback for Learning (MFL) from items 7, 22, 25; Managing Learning Routines (MLR) from items 20, 21, 23, and 25 Table 8 reports the statistics of the four sub-scales among NNESTs in the current study

Maintaining a Positive Classroom Climate (PCC)

Monitoring and Feedback for Learning (MFL)

Managing Learning Routines (MLR) Items: 20, 21, 23, 25

Maintaining a Positive Classroom Climate (PCC) 20.59 3.36

Monitoring and Feedback for Learning (MFL) 8.65 1.63 Accommodating Individual Differences (AID) 4.21 1.37

Table 8 - Statistics of the four sub-scales for NNESTs

As seen above, most NNESTs endorsed a high level of efficacy beliefs to self- efficacy belief items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 12; collating these items to the dimensions of TEBS-

Classroom Climate (PCC)” The highest score of 20.5 (SD=3.88) for this dimension of SEB suggests that most NNESTs have strong beliefs in their capabilities to create and maintain positive classroom climates for their students The second highest scored dimension is Managing Learning Routines (MLR) with a mean of 11.06 (SD=2.54); then Monitoring and Feedback for Learning (MFL) with a mean of 8.76 (SD=1.64)

Meanwhile, the items which received low levels of endorsement were 27 & 28, suggesting that most NNESTs have low level of efficacy beliefs in terms of

“Accommodating Individual Differences (AID)” Further examining suggests that the issues of “students with special needs” (item 27) and “learning difficulties” (item 28) are rather irrelevant in the English teaching and learning context at FELTE as actually, there are no disabled students with serious learning difficulties.

Research question 2: What is the self-efficacy of NESTs?

The table below shows the general efficacy beliefs of NESTs Overall, NESTs have highest level of efficacy beliefs in items 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23, 24, 26,

29, 30, 31 (these are the items which received an overall mean equal to or higher than 3, i.e strong to very strong) with the highest endorsed efficacy beliefs in items 8 and 9 (the mean of which was 3.83 and 3.50 respectively); while the efficacy belief items 27, 28 received the lowest level of perceived efficacy (a mean of 1.83 and 2.00, respectively, meaning “weak to relatively moderate” level of efficacy beliefs)

Nationality 2 Others Valid cases = 6; cases with missing value(s) = 0

Variable N Mean Std Dev Minimum Maximum se1 6 2.50 1.05 1.00 4.00 se2 6 2.33 1.03 1.00 4.00 se3 6 3.33 82 2.00 4.00 se4 6 3.33 52 3.00 4.00 se5 6 3.00 89 2.00 4.00 se6 6 3.00 89 2.00 4.00 se7 6 3.00 1.10 1.00 4.00 se8 6 3.83 41 3.00 4.00 se9 6 3.50 55 3.00 4.00 se10 6 3.00 63 2.00 4.00 se11 6 3.00 63 2.00 4.00 se12 6 2.33 1.03 1.00 4.00 se13 6 2.33 82 1.00 3.00 se14 6 2.17 75 1.00 3.00 se15 6 3.00 63 2.00 4.00 se16 6 3.00 63 2.00 4.00 se17 6 3.33 82 2.00 4.00 se18 6 3.33 82 2.00 4.00 se19 6 2.33 1.03 1.00 4.00 se20 6 2.67 1.21 1.00 4.00 se21 6 2.50 1.05 1.00 4.00 se22 6 3.50 84 2.00 4.00 se23 6 3.00 89 2.00 4.00 se24 6 3.17 75 2.00 4.00 se25 6 2.50 1.05 1.00 4.00 se26 6 3.00 63 2.00 4.00 se27 6 1.83 75 1.00 3.00 se28 6 2.00 63 1.00 3.00 se29 6 3.17 75 2.00 4.00 se30 6 3.17 75 2.00 4.00 se31 6 3.50 55 3.00 4.00

Table 9 - NESTs’ general efficacy beliefs (N=6)

As seen above, most NESTs endorsed a high level of efficacy beliefs to self-efficacy belief items 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23, 24, 26, 29, 30, 31, collating these items to the dimensions of TEBS-S, we can see that these items most constitutes the

Feedback for Learning (MFL)”, and “Managing Learning Routines (MLR)”; suggesting that most NESTs have strong beliefs in their capabilities to create and maintain positive classroom climates for their students, monitor feedback for learning, and maintain their students’ language learning routines

Meanwhile, similar to the NNEST counterpart, the items which received low levels of endorsement were 27 & 28, suggesting that most NESTs also have low level of efficacy beliefs in terms of “Accommodating Individual Differences (AID)” This suggest that most NESTs in this study find the issues of “students with special needs” (item 27) and

“learning difficulties” (item 28) rather irrelevant to their English teaching contexts (at FELTE & other English language teaching institutions in Vietnam) Summary statistics of the four dimensions of the SEB scale for NESTs can be found in Table 10

Maintaining a Positive Classroom Climate (PCC) 19.83 4.88

Monitoring and Feedback for Learning (MFL) 9.67 2.42 Accommodating Individual Differences (AID) 3.83 1.33

Table 10 - Statistics of the four sub-scales for NESTs

Research question 3: What is the relationship between the self-efficacy of these two

Comparison of the self-efficacy beliefs (SEB) of NESTs and NNESTs using descriptive statistics show that the two groups share common belief of their capabilities in

“Maintaining a Positive Classroom Climate (PCC)” They also have low level of efficacy beliefs in terms of “Accommodating Individual Differences (AID)” This suggest that most NESTs and NNESTs in this study find the issues of “students with special needs”

(item 27) and “learning difficulties” (item 28) rather irrelevant to their English teaching contexts (at FELTE & other English language teaching institutions in Vietnam)

In addition to that, the higher endorsement level for “Monitoring and Feedback for Learning (MFL)” by NESTs compared to the NNESTs counterpart suggest that most NESTs have strong beliefs in their capabilities to monitor and provide feedback for learning Table 11 presents the comparison

Table 11 - Statistics of the four sub-scales for NESTs and NNESTs

F1= MLR; F2=MFL; F3=AID; F4=PCC 1=Vietnamese; 2=Others

For a more rigorous picture of the relationship between the self-efficacy of NESTs and NNESTs, independent samples t-test was used to compare the means of NESTs and NNESTs on all the four sub-scales of AID, PCC, MFL, MLR The results yielded, however, were not statistically significant This could be due to the small size of the samples involved Table 12 reports the results

Table 12 - Independent samples t-test of the four sub-scales for NESTs and NNESTs

As gender and teaching experience have been found to have some influence on teacher self-efficacy, independent samples t-test was used to explore the relationship between the SEB of NESTs and NNESTs and with both group as a whole with gender and teaching experience as grouping variables

The results indicate a mixed relationship between SEB of NESTs and NNESTs as measured in the present study NESTs scored lower than NNESTs on the AID, PCC AND MLR components of teacher self-efficacy NNESTs, however, scored lower than NESTs on MFL Although the current study does not set the objective to probe the reason why there is such a difference between NESTs and NNESTs, it could happen that compared to the NESTs, the NNESTs in the study have not been well-prepared in using corrective feedback to monitor their students’ work for better learning

With both groups collapsed into one sample, gender appears to have little effect on SEB of the teachers in the sample Except for the dimension of Monitoring and Feedback for Learning (MFL), the male show a consistently lower level of endorsement than the female on the self-efficacy scale (see Table 13) The finding was in line with finding by Cheung (2006, cited in Karimvand 2011) and Karimvand’s (2011, p.173) findings which showed that female teachers “have significantly more general efficacy than male teachers, while it is worth mentioning that female teachers in this study were generally older and had longer teaching experience than male teacher”

Maintaining a Positive Classroom Climate (PCC)

Monitoring and Feedback for Learning (MFL)

Table 13 - Gender aspect of the four dimensions of teacher self-efficacy

Teaching experience then was explored with the whole sample Descriptive statistics show interesting results While teachers in group 1 with less than 3 years of teaching experience consistently show a lower level of endorsement of AID, PCC and MLR, they appear to endorse Monitoring and Feedback for Learning - MFL more than their counterpart group 2, teachers with 3 or more than 3 years of teaching experience Group 1 mean score for MFL is 8.82 (SD=1.47), whereas group 2 mean score is 8.79 (SD=1.90)

TeachingExp N Mean Std Deviation S.E Mean

Table 14 - Experience aspect of the four dimensions of teacher self-efficacy

1=Less than 3 years’ teaching experience; 2=Equal to or more than 3 years’ teaching experience

This finding supports the results of Karimvand’s (2011, 177) study that found that

“experience significantly affects Iranian EFL teachers’ self-efficacy”

In summary, the NESTs and NNESTs in the present study appeared to show similar trends in their beliefs about their teaching efficacy They found themselves to be efficacious in Maintaining a Positive Classroom Climate (PCC), Managing Learning Routines (MLR) and Monitoring and Feedback for Learning (MFL) They all reported that they are not self-efficacious in Accommodating Individual Differences (AID) NESTs even rated themselves to be less efficacious than NNESTs in this aspect A careful scrutiny of the ELT Methodology program at FELTE-ULIS-VNU Hanoi revealed that the program does not have any module on special education, a theoretical base for accommodating individual differences

On the basis of the findings, the study offers some suggestion and recommendations for EFL teacher development The next chapter presents the information.

SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Teacher development at FELTE, ULIS, VNUH

In recent years, with the emergence of the postmethod pedagogy which empowers language teachers to become “both theorizers and practitioners” (Kumaravadivelu, 2003) and critical pedagogy which considers teachers as “transformative intellectuals”

(Pennycook, 1989, p 613, cited in Akbari & Moradkhani, 2010), more attention has been paid to the teacher’s role in the process of education The teacher, among the other people involved in the contribution to education, i.e administrators, policy makers, curriculum planners, teacher educators, and textbook writers, is considered the agent of change who shapes and reshapes the learning outcome In fact, the teacher can play a decisive role in the success or failure of an education endeavour (Richards and Renandya, 2002;

Kumaravadivelu, 2003) It is, therefore, wise to invest in professional development of teachers in general, EFL teachers at FELTE, in particular Such a program would benefit much from the findings of the present study on teacher self-efficacy in two ways

Firstly, the fact that both native English speaker teachers and non-native English speaker teachers report a high level of beliefs on their abilities to maintain a Positive Classroom Climate (PCC), to manage Learning Routines (MLR) and to monitor and provide Feedback for Learning (MFL) show that the training programs for these teachers have done very well on these aspects Future training programs could build on these solid grounds for even more success

Secondly, the fact that both native English speaker teachers and non-native English speaker teachers report a low level of beliefs on their abilities to accommodate Individual Differences (AID) shows that this very aspect is lacking in the training programs for ELT teachers ELT teacher trainers may take advantage of available sources on teaching students with special needs in other subject areas to incorporate relevant approaches and techniques into the ELT training programs to better prepare English teachers for inclusive education, a policy promoted by Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training and strongly supported by major donors in educational field.

Teacher training program design at FELTE, ULIS, VNUH

As mentioned above, the lack of an element of special education to provide teachers with knowledge and skills on how to Accommodate Individual Differences (AID) in the training programs for ELT pre-service teachers points to the need to design a module on special education in ELT

The design should follow standard procedures of needs analysis, material development, piloting, editing and so on Approaches, methods and techniques could be borrowed from established procedures used in other subject matters

The design module may not just focus on catering for the needs of disabled students but also on providing English teachers with appropriate techniques and procedures for individualisation in English language teaching It may also looks at practical tips for teaching mixed abilities classes, a real problem in many English language classrooms

PART C: CONCLUSION eacher self-efficacy, which refers to teachers’ beliefs in their self-perceived abilities to organize and execute courses of action to reach a specific level of achievement in situation-specific teaching tasks (Dellinger, 2001), is an important indicator of educational success According to Bandura (1993), self-efficacious teachers effectively create learning environments conducive to development of cognitive skills, while teachers with a low sense of instructional efficacy favor a punishment orientation that relies heavily on negative sanctions to get students to study

This study utilised the TEBS-Self questionnaire survey developed by Dellinger et al

(2008) to collect information about the self-efficacy beliefs of native and non-native English speaker teachers in the Vietnamese higher education teaching context Results show that both groups have high beliefs on their capabilities to maintain positive classroom climates The two groups also report low level of endorsement on dealing with special needs students The native speaker group, on the other hand, reported high level on monitoring and feedback and classroom management Finally, the study provided recommendations and implications for even better professional development for NNESTs

Though the researcher has carried out the study with full prudence and seriousness, there remain certain limitations in the study

First and foremost, due to other responsibilities and the lack of time, the researcher could not carry out interviews of NNESTs and NESTs to probe elucidation to their perceived efficacy, and the extent to which these perceived efficacy affect their work achievement, their teaching practices, their outlook of the process of education, and subsequently, their students’ academic achievement

Next, within the scope of this research, the concept of self-efficacy was particularly examined in the educational context More precisely, the study looked at teacher self- efficacy from the psychometric dimensions developed by Dellinger et al (2008) which is only a small aspect of a larger picture

On the methodology of the research, this study utilises a single survey questionnaire, namely the Teacher Efficacy Belief Scale – Self (TEBS-S) developed by Dellinger et al

(2008) Though the TEBS-S has been analysed thoroughly for internal consistency validity, some factors/ items remain rather irrelevant to the teaching context of the participants in the research

In view of the limitations of this study, the researcher would like to make some recommendations for further research into the same topic

First of all, further research on teacher self-efficacy beliefs and their potential impacts on teachers’ work achievement and their students’ academic attainment should be carried out

Secondly, as the study looked at teacher self-efficacy from the psychometric dimensions developed by Dellinger et al (2008) which is only a small aspect of a larger picture, other researchers are encouraged to examine the topic based on different authors’ conceptualisation of teacher self-efficacy for a more wide-ranging view

Finally, as, according to Dellinger, teacher efficacy is “a belief system that one has concerning his/her self-perceived capabilities to organize and execute courses of action to acquire given levels of attainment in situation-specific teaching tasks” (Dellinger, 2011), more comprehensive and context-specific tools to gauge teachers’ self-efficacy should be developed for thorough and exhaustive findings

Akbari, R., & Moradkhani, S (2010) Iranian English Teachers’ self-efficacy: Do

Academic Degree and Experience make a difference? Pazhuhesh-e Zabanha-ye

Bem, D J (1972) Self-perception theory In L Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in

Experimental Social psychology, 6, pp 1-62 New York: Academic Press

Retrieved on the World Wide Web at http://www.dbem.ws/SP%20Theory.pdf

Bandura A (1977) Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change Psychological Review, 84, 191-215

Bandura, A (1978) Reflections on self-efficacy Advances in Behavioural Research and

Bandura, A (1993) Perceived Self-Efficacy in Cognitive Development and Functioning

Bandura, A (1997) Self-Efficacy: The exercise of control New York: W.H Freeman &

Bandura, A (2001) Social cognitive theory: An agentive perspective Annual Review of

Bao Kham, (2010) Problems of novice EFL teachers in Vietnam Retrieved from the

World Wide Web at http://data.ulis.vnu.edu.vn/jspui/bitstream/123456789/2005/1/ASIATEFL.ppt/

Borg, S (2003) Teacher cognition in language teaching: A review of research on what language teachers think, know, believe and do Language Teaching, 36, 81–109

Braine, G (Ed.) (1999) Non-native educators in English language teaching Mahwah, NJ:

Cheung, H.Y (2008) Teacher Efficacy: A Comparative Study of Hong Kong and

Shanghai Primary In-Service Teachers The Australian Educational Researcher,

Cherry, K (2011) What is self-efficacy? Retrieved on February 20 th , 2011 from the World

Wide Web at http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/self_efficacy.htm

Dellinger, A.B (2001) A study of the measurement and sources of teachers’ self and collective efficacy beliefs in professional learning environments Dissertation,

Dellinger, A B., Bobbett, J., Olivier, D F., & Ellett, C D (2008) Measuring Teachers’

Self-Efficacy Beliefs: Development and Use of the TEBS-Self Teaching and

Teacher Evaluation: An International Journal of Research and Studies, 24 (3),

Efficacy (2011) Oxforddictionaries.com Oxford University Press Retrieved August 30,

2011, from http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/efficacy

Kamhi-Stein, L D (2004) Nonnative-English-speaking educators: A research summary

Karimvand, P N (2011) The Nexus between Iranian EFL Teachers’ self-efficacy,

Teaching Experience and Gender English Language Teaching, 4(3), 171-183

Kumaravadivelu, B (2003) Beyond methods: Macrostrategies for language teaching

New Haven and London: Yale University Press

Graddol, D (2007) English Next UK: British Council

Gibson, S & Dembo, M (1984) Teacher efficacy: A construct validation Journal of

Harmer, J (2003) How to teach English: An Introduction to the Practice of English

Language Teaching Ninth impression England: Pearson Education Limited

Henson, R K (2001) Teacher Self-Efficacy: Substantive Implications and Measurement

Dilemmas Retrieved on the World Wide Web at http://des.emory.edu/mfp/EREkeynote.PDF Hoang, V V (2011) The Current Situation and Issues of the Teaching of English in

Vietnam Retrieved on the World Wide Web at http://www.ritsumei.ac.jp/acd/re/k- rsc/lcs/kiyou/pdf_22-1/RitsIILCS_22.1pp.7-18_HOANG.pdf

Jimenez Soffa, S (2006) Inspiring academic confidence in the classroom: An investigation of features of the classroom experience that contribute to the academic self-efficacy of undergraduate women enrolled in gateway courses

Dissertation completed at the University of Wisconsin-Madison

Lightbown, P M., & Spada, N (2000) How languages are learned Revised edition

Liu, Jun (2009) Complexities and Challenges in Training Nonnative English Speaking

Teachers: State-of-the-Art CamTESOL conference materials Retrieved on

November 1 st , 2009 at http://www.camtesol.org/2009conference/Documents/Jun_Liu_09.ppt/

Llurda, E (Ed.) (2005) Non-Native Language Teachers Perceptions, Challenges, and

Contributions to the Profession New York: Springer

Maum, R (2009) Nonnative-English-Speaking Teachers in the English Teaching

Profession ERIC Digest Retrieved on October 10 th , 2009 at http://www.ericdigest.org/2003-4/teaching-profession.html/

Medgyes, P (1994) The non-native teacher London: Macmillan

Nolan, D (2009) A Study of The Relationship of Teachers’ Self-Efficacy and the Impact of

Professional Learning Community as an Organizational Structure Doctoral dissertation, Louisiana Tech University Retrieve on the World Wide Web at http://etd.lsu.edu/docs/available/etd-06102009-104808/unrestricted/Nolan.pdf

Ngo, V H P & Vu, T P T (2011) An interactive evaluation of a mentoring program for beginning teachers TESOL Conference 2011 presentation slides Retrieved from http://www.vnseameo.org/TESOLConference2011/PPT/Ngo%20Viet%20Ha%20P huong%20&%20Vu%20Thi%20Phuong%20Thao.pptx

Opp-Beckman, L., & Klinghammer, S J (2006) Shaping the way we teach English: successful practice around the world Washington, DC: Office of English

Pajares, F (2002) Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy Retrieved

February 19 th , 2011, from http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/eff.html/

Pajares, F., & Miller, M D (1994) Role of self-efficacy and self-concept beliefs in mathematical problem solving: a path analysis Journal of Educational Psychology,

Paneque, O M & Barbetta, P M (2005) A Study of Teacher Efficacy of Special

Education Teachers of English Language Learners with Disabilities Proceedings of

The Fourth Annual College of Education Research Conference, 99-104

Richards, J (1990) The language teaching matrix Cambridge: Cambridge University

Richards, J (2002) Curriculum development in language teaching 2 nd printing

Richards, J (2005) Communicative Language Teaching Today Retrieved from the World

Wide Web on December 18 th , 2007 at http://www.cambridge.com.mx/site/EXTRAS/jack-CD.pdf/

Richards, J C., & Renandya, W A (Editors) (2002) Methodology in Language Teaching: an Anthology of Current Practice New York: Cambridge University Press

Ross, J A., & Bruce, C (2007) "Professional development effects on teacher efficacy;

Results of randomized field trial" The Journal of Educational Research, 101(1), 50-66

Self-efficacy (2011) In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia Retrieved October 7, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Self-efficacy&oldidD5085364/

Social cognitive theory (2011) In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia Retrieved October

7, 2010 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_cognitive_theory&oldidE37372 03/

Schwarzer, R., & Hallum, S (2008) Perceived teacher self-efficacy as a predictor of job stress and burnout: Mediation analyses Applied Psychology: An International

Review, Special Issue: Health and Well-Being, 57, 152-171

Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M (1995) Generalized Self-Efficacy scale In J Weinman, S

Wright, & M Johnston, Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio Causal and control beliefs (pp 35-37) Windsor, UK: NFER-NELSON

Schwarzer, R., & Knoll, N (2007) Functional roles of social support within the stress and coping process: A theoretical and empirical overview International Journal of

Skaalvik, E M., & Skaalvik, S (2007) Dimensions of teacher self-efficacy and relations with strain factors, perceived collective teacher efficacy, and teacher burnout Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(3), 611-625 American Psychological Assoc/educational publishing foundation Retrieved from http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi.1037/0022-0663.99.3.611

Tang, C (1997) On the power and status of nonnative ESL teachers TESOL Quarterly,

Tschannen-Moran, M., Woolfolk Hoy, A & Hoy, W K (1994) Teacher Efficacy: Its

Meaning and Measure Review of Educational Research, 68, 202 - 248

Tsui, A B M (2007) "Complexities of identity formation: A narrative inquiry of an EFL teacher" TESOL Quarterly, 41(4), 657 – 680

Ur, P (1996) A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory Cambridge:

Vijay Gupta (1999) SPSS for beginners SPSS: Vijay Gupta

Vietnam National University (2005) Undergraduate Programs Hanoi: VNUH

Wallace, M J (1998) Action Research for Language Teachers Cambridge University

Watzke, J L (2007) Foreign language pedagogical knowledge: Toward a developmental theory of beginning teacher practices The Modern Language Journal, 91(1), 63 –

Zeldin, A L., & Pajares, F (2000) Against the odds: Self-efficacy beliefs of women in mathematical, scientific, and technological careers American Educational

TEBS-Self (Teacher Efficacy Beliefs Scale-Self) (Dellinger et al., 2008)

Gender: (please highlight) Female Male Teaching experience: ………… years

Response scale: 1 is weak 2 is moderate 3 is strong 4 is very strong Please put a “” where appropriate

Item Right now in my present teaching situation, the strength of my personal beliefs in my capabilities to… 1 2 3 4

1 plan activities that accommodate the range of individual differences among my students

2 plan evaluation procedures that accommodate individual differences among my students

3 use allocated time for activities that maximize learning

4 effectively manage routines and procedures for learning tasks

5 clarify directions for learning routines

6 maintain high levels of student engagement in learning tasks

7 redirect students who are persistently off task

8 maintain a classroom climate of courtesy and respect

9 maintain a classroom climate that is fair and impartial

10 communicate to students the specific learning outcomes of the lesson

11 communicate to students the purpose and/or importance of learning tasks

12 implement teaching methods at an appropriate pace to accommodate differences among my students

13 utilize teaching aids and learning materials that accommodate individual differences among my students

14 provide students with opportunities to learn at more than one cognitive and/or performance level

15 communicate to students content knowledge that is accurate and logical

16 clarify student misunderstandings or difficulties in learning

17 provide students with specific feedback about their learning

18 provide students with suggestions for improving learning

19 actively involve students in developing concepts

20 solicit a variety of questions throughout the lesson that enable higher order thinking

21 actively involve students in critical analysis and/or problem solving

22 monitor students’ involvement during learning tasks

23 adjust teaching and learning activities as needed

25 involve students in developing higher order thinking skills

26 motivate students to perform to their fullest potential

27 provide a learning environment that accommodates students with special needs

28 improve the academic performance of students, including those with learning disabilities

29 provide a positive influence on the academic development of students

30 maintain a classroom environment in which students work cooperatively

31 successfully maintain a positive classroom climate

Thank you for your participation!