Research questions
The research questions which guide this study are as follows:
- What are teachers’ and inspectors’ perceptions of an effective English lesson in upper-secondary school context?
- What suggestions are made on the criteria for evaluating an English lesson in upper- secondary school context?
- What are the implications for language teaching and teaching evaluation practice in upper-secondary school context?
The qualitative research method was adopted for this study to explore the upper- secondary school teachers’ and inspectors’ perceptions of an effective lesson Specifically, semi-structured interviews with teachers and inspectors were undertaken to collect data for analysis and discussion
The study focuses on discovering teachers’ and inspectors’ perceptions of an effective English lesson in Hai Duong provincial upper-secondary school context Aspects explored center on the evaluation criteria for an effective lesson mandated by MOET
5 The design of the thesis
The study is divided into 3 parts Part A is an introduction to the research, in which matters such as rationale, method of study and research questions are presented Part B is the development of the study in which there are 2 chapters, chapter 1 and chapter 2
Chapter 1 reviews the relevant literature on the matters of effective teaching, teaching evaluation, observation and criteria for lesson effectiveness Ideas from the researchers in the field have been discussed to create a theoretical framework for the study Chapter 2 presents the context of the study, the participants and data collection method This is followed by the analysis of the data collected and discussion of the findings Part C provides conclusions of the study findings and the implications for language teaching and teaching evaluation in upper-secondary school context Also, in this part, the limitations and suggestions for further research are included
PART B: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction
This chapter reviews the relevant literature on teaching evaluation It first discusses what effective teaching is, then teaching evaluation This is followed by a discussion of the limitations of evaluating teaching solely through classroom observations Finally, criteria for evaluating teaching are reviewed
Effective teaching is the topic that concerns lots of researchers, educational administrators and teachers What discussed below is the matter of effective teaching in terms of teaching materials, teaching methods, class management and student learning outcome
Teaching materials are among the components that constitute effective teaching
Teachers need materials to carry out their instructional practice Effective teaching needs good materials Researchers are currently putting a great emphasis on the use of meaningful materials in a language class According to Siser (2008), meaningful materials are the ones that are relevant to students, reflecting real life issues and problems The more meaningful materials are to students, the quicker and easier they will be learned In addition to this, the content embedded in materials should be varied, natural and authentic, so that students feel they are working on tasks in real life (Kusuma & Powell, 2004)
Rivers (2003) also voices his favour of the use of materials that focus on the use of natural language He states that it is good to provide students with practice in using the language for everyday life communication This is opposed to the unnatural types of drills and practice exercises which are still widely used in many teaching contexts
Learners in different contexts vary in their learning styles, language proficiency or learning needs Rivers (2003) says that learning and teaching are shaped by student needs and objectives in particular circumstances Therefore, materials should be designed to care about learners’ particularities They should not be too challenging to students in terms of linguistic knowledge but should be interesting enough to motivate them in their learning
Similarly, Martin (2005) encourages teachers to take the responsibilities of adapting materials to suite their learners According to him, teachers need to add, for example, extra necessary language knowledge or topics if their students want or need
Effective teaching results from the way the lesson is delivered to students This requires teachers to have good instructional skills to make it easy for students to attain the target language knowledge as well as to develop their language skills Pellino (2009) identifies four loads as barriers to meaningful instructions, namely cognitive load, culture load, language load and learning load, and that it is the job of the teacher to lower these barriers, helping students to overcome them Appropriate techniques need to be devised to construct understanding, and reinforce their interest in their learning process Obviously, to teach effectively, teachers need to be flexible in their delivery of the lesson What guides their teaching practice is not only the body of theoretical knowledge in the field of language teaching but also the reality of their classroom According to Rivers (2003) teachers should develop and strengthen their own way of proceeding in relation to the needs and individual strengths of their students in their own context It is teachers who have control over their decision making process, which vary with changing circumstances
In a similar vein, Martin (2005) emphasizes the need to make changes to the lesson plan because learners vary in learning backgrounds and language proficiency Teachers should modify activities and the tasks if they realize that they are far from being appropriate in the class In other words, teachers should be sensitive to their particular students This is echoed by Sizer (2009) when he states that good teaching does not mean fixed teaching and that teachers should be flexible with changing circumstances According to him, successful teaching does not mean all matters in the lesson are fully covered In some particular teaching situations, the lesson delivered is still considered effective even though the teacher cannot go through all the tasks and activities intended to be dealt with
A single best method may not exist in modern language teaching environment
Effective teachers know how to combine different methods in their teaching in order to yield good learning outcome According to Ganguly (2003), effective teachers use techniques that best serve the learning styles of their students Students not only learn by being exposed to learning opportunities but they also need to be explicitly taught what important for them to know What can be inferred is that direct or indirect explanation is not effective on its own In fact, the combination of the two is a fair solution Rivers (2003) is also in favour of the combination of methods in teaching According to him, no method claims to stand on its own in modern language learning and teaching environment
Researchers also focus on the importance of moving from simple tasks to complex ones in class Students will feel learning more rewarding if they have the opportunity to master the simple concepts first, then complex ones However, the final goal of every language course is that students know how to use language they have learnt for different purposes in communication (Martin, 2005) The practice of grammar structures with isolated meanings does not prepare the learners for meaningful use of language Instead, language practice should be close to real communication According to Rivers (2003), teachers should provide students with opportunity to apply their knowledge and skills to new situations Similarly, Martin (2005) puts an emphasis on the need to proceed from more controlled activities to less controlled ones in the class
Class management is one of the important aspects that determine the success of teaching What is meant by effective classroom management is that teachers are aware of their different roles in class They should take a suitable role at each stage of the lesson and should be flexible in what they do to keep class activities not only in discipline but also in relaxed atmosphere According to Yen (2006), the good language teacher should realize that the language teaching does not merely go in hand with the mastery of grammar rules and expansion of vocabulary but there are also many important tools that affect or even promote language teaching For example, some knowledge of psychology brings about not only behaviour success at mastering language, but also cognitive success and increased confidence Kusuma & Powell (2004) make the same point when stating that what teachers are encouraged to do is to set up a positive classroom environment that will support future interaction and collaboration between teacher and students and between students themselves It is for sure that the positive classroom environment is one of the decisive factors that contribute to satisfactory learning outcome Martin (2005) postulates that students will learn more easily in the environments in which anxiety is lessened and self- confidence and self-esteem can be developed Similarly, Kusuma & Powell (2004) state that students learn best if they are in a classroom where they feel safe and confident to attempt new tasks
Scope of the study
The study focuses on discovering teachers’ and inspectors’ perceptions of an effective English lesson in Hai Duong provincial upper-secondary school context Aspects explored center on the evaluation criteria for an effective lesson mandated by MOET.
The design of the thesis
The study is divided into 3 parts Part A is an introduction to the research, in which matters such as rationale, method of study and research questions are presented Part B is the development of the study in which there are 2 chapters, chapter 1 and chapter 2
Chapter 1 reviews the relevant literature on the matters of effective teaching, teaching evaluation, observation and criteria for lesson effectiveness Ideas from the researchers in the field have been discussed to create a theoretical framework for the study Chapter 2 presents the context of the study, the participants and data collection method This is followed by the analysis of the data collected and discussion of the findings Part C provides conclusions of the study findings and the implications for language teaching and teaching evaluation in upper-secondary school context Also, in this part, the limitations and suggestions for further research are included.
LITERATURE REVIEW 1.1 Effective teaching
Teaching evaluation
Teaching evaluation is one among a number of tools that are used to assess the quality of instructions, to improve instructional practices and to promote teacher professional growth (Jahangiri & Mucciolo, 2001) In school environment evaluation serves two purposes: to improve teacher’s instructions and to provide information for personnel decisions in a school system (Gowan, 1975)
The practice of evaluating teaching has undergone lots of great changes over the past few decades and continued to be on high agenda due to changes in views on language teaching and learning (OIAP, 2007) Bailey (2002) also assumes that current changes in linguistics and language pedagogy have contributed to new developments in observation and evaluation practices This reality indicates a need to ensure that evaluation is responsive to the teaching culture (the teaching styles which are generally deemed effective for that particular teaching context), the socio-cultural classroom context, the characteristics of the students, etc (Murdoch, 1998) Professionals in the field have highlighted the importance of context in teaching evaluation According to Malderez
(1999), context decides the choice of materials as well as methods adopted in class Gowan
(1975) and Murdoch (1998) consider that evaluation needs to be designed for the context in which it is used, sensitive to local conditions Thus, it is necessary is to leave room for teachers to be inventive and creative with their own teaching strategies
Shulman (as cited in Sawa, 1995) insists that evaluation should know the subject matter, pedagogy, and classroom characteristics of the teachers being evaluated as well as take into consideration the fact that experienced and excellent teachers can devise instructional methods that theorists and researchers can neither explain nor anticipate
Similarly, SCOTL (2002) announces that the criteria for evaluating teaching vary between disciplines and within disciplines and should take into account the level of the course, the instructors’ objective and style, and the teaching methodology employed
As for the appropriate focus of evaluation, Tsai (2008) said that teacher evaluation should identify and measure the instructional strategies, professional behaviours, and delivery of content knowledge that affects student learning However, the focus should be oriented more towards teacher development rather than teacher evaluation (Seal, 1989)
Evaluation should be carried out in such a way that it creates a beneficial impact on teachers’ teaching Therefore, a cooperative and interactive relationship between teachers and observers should be established (Tsai, 2008) According to Murdoch (1998), a transparent and open discussion of key classroom issues and the features of excellent teaching will help promote teacher professional growth This is shared by Baker and Westrup (2002) when they believe that teaching repertoir will be enriched by positive comments from colleagues and education supervisors, which focus on helping teachers to realize what needs to be brought into full play, and what needs to be improved in their performance
When considering the role of supervisors, Murdoch (1998) say that supervisors are, on the one hand, facilitators of professional development, and on the other hand, assessors of the quality of teachers’ work To establish effective supervisory relations, Gitlin and Smyth (as cited in Sawa, 1995) emphasizes that supervisor needs to move away from what termed as the “dominant” view of teacher supervision, according to which, supervisor operates as an “expert” with a mandate to prescribe the features of good teaching and diagnose at the weaknesses of teachers They go on to say that this approach fails to grant teachers with some degrees of independence on their own way to satisfy the learning needs of their students, develop their own classroom teaching skills and take responsibility for their own professional development.
Observation as a tool to evaluate teaching
Classroom observation is a process by which an observer records the instructor's teaching practices and student actions in class sessions, and then discuss the observations with the instructor (Malderez, 1999) The importance of observation is obvious in the development and assessment of teachers’ teaching Observation can help us to get a picture of educational situations, assess the quality of educational practices and make suggestions for improvements (Malderez, 1999) This assertion is supported Seal (1989) when he states that observations can provide useful feedback to teachers and can improve the overall effectiveness of the teaching and learning process
A number of researchers voice their opposition to the use of observation in promoting the performance of teachers They maintain that observation tends to be subjective based on the observer’s own teaching approach and that observation tends to be seen as judgemental, and one more aspect of administrator “power” Therefore, it is not a means to boost teaching effectiveness (Richards, 2004) Most observations are for teacher- evaluation purposes Consequently, teachers generally regard observation as a threat This leads to tension in the classroom, and tension between teachers and observers during feedback meeting (Bailey, 2002)
Suggestions for improving observation practice
According to Sheal (1989), ELT classroom observations nowadays have put an emphasis on the need to hold more developmental than judgemental view in classroom observation The main purpose of observation is not to grade teachers’ teaching, but to work with the teachers to explore and identify the can-be-improved points as well as the positive aspects in a class, thereby promoting their critical thinking and professional growth Following are suggestions on observation that have been made by a number of researchers:
- Focus should be oriented more towards teacher-development rather than teacher evaluation Useful feedback should be provided to teachers so that the overall effectiveness of the teaching and learning process can be improved
- Classroom observers should be trained in their ability to evaluate teachers’ performance (Sheal, 1989)
- Voice of those observed should be heard (Wajnryb, 2001)
- A cooperative and interactive relationship between teachers and observers should be established
- Teachers are encouraged to make the alternatives as long as they lead to effective teaching (Tsai, 2008).
Criteria for evaluating lesson effectiveness
The criteria for evaluating lesson effectiveness have been discussed by lots of researchers in language teaching Martin (2005) focuses on teachers’ instructional methods, their mastery of subject matter knowledge and their classroom management skill when measuring lesson effectiveness According to him, a lesson is considered as effective if teachers:
- strive to motivate and engage all their students in learning
- acknowledge individual differences and devise a range of practice activities and presentation strategies to suit their abilities and learning styles
- use a range of pedagogies in teaching
- have mastery of their teaching content
- provide a safe environment in which students are encouraged to take part in every learning activity with comfort
- monitor progress and provide feedback for students to make progress in their learning
- build positive relationships between teachers and students
In a similar vein, Davies and Pearse (2000) focus on the teachers’ knowledge of language, their command of practical English, students’ needs and their practice for language use According to them, successful teachers usually:
- have a practical command of English, not just a knowledge of grammar rules
- use English most of the time in every class, including beginners’ classes
- think mostly in terms of learner practice, not teacher explanations
- find time for really communicative activities, not just practice of language forms
- focus their teaching on learners’ needs, not just on “finishing the syllabus or course book”
According to Kerby et al (2002), in order to yield successful lessons, teachers have to show some qualities They should:
- have the ability to motivate and inspire students in diverse ways
- prepare students for the role of life-long learners
- be familiar with multiple instructional techniques
- incorporate means of generating interest in the classroom
- avoid interrupting the students, acknowledge students with appropriate feedback
Several researchers have brought forward the criteria for an effective lesson based on student-centered approach According to this approach, students take a central role in learning process Thus, a lesson is deemed effective when teachers focus on learners and their learning Chickering and Gamson (1989) emphasize what teachers need to do to better students’ learning outcome Their criteria for an effective lesson mostly focus on learners Teachers’ performance is measured by their ability to:
- encourage co-operation among students
- emphasize time on tasks so that students have enough time for their practice of new language items
- communicate high expectations so as to encourage students to make effort in their learning
- respect diverse talents and ways of learning
Ur (1996) also provides some criteria which mostly focus on student learning The criteria are as follows:
- The class seemed to be learning the material well
- The learners were engaging with the foreign language throughout
- The learners were attentive all the time
- The learners enjoyed the lesson, were motivated
- The learners were active all the time
- The lesson went according to plan
- The language was used communicatively throughout Doff (1988) suggests a set of criteria for evaluating lesson effectiveness in the forms of questions His criteria focus on the aim and procedures of the lesson, teacher’s instruction and class management skill, their teaching manner, their use of visual aids and student learning:
- Is the aim of the lesson clear?
- Does the teacher write clearly on the board?
- Do students participate actively in the lesson?
- Does the teacher do a variety of activities?
- Are the stages of the lesson clear?
- Does the teacher have clear pronunciation?
- Does the teacher use visuals appropriately?
- Does the teacher speak naturally?
- Does the teacher encourage students to ask questions?
- Does the teacher encourage real use of language?
- Does the teacher seem interested in the lesson?
The document of the ELTTP project, which was implemented from 1998 to 2002 with the objectives of improving teachers’ teaching skills, goes into much detail when bringing forward the criteria grouped in four main aspects for evaluating lesson effectiveness The criteria include Teaching the lesson, Management and Control of the class, Student learning and Involvement, Teacher’s manner and Use of English Following are the indicators of the criteria:
+ As for Teaching the lesson, the teacher is expected to:
- start the lesson clearly and provide clear stages to the lesson
- use the lesson plan appropriately with appropriate timing of the activities
- use a good balance of English and Vietnamese
- The activities used are successful with the use of a variety of media, blackboard and other visuals
- Use a variety of questioning strategies and apply several techniques to deal with errors
+ In terms of Management and Control of the class, the teacher should
- monitor the class, maintain eye contact with the class and respond to students
- use a variety of work arrangement
- elicit from the students; make sure his voice level is loud enough + As for students learning and involvement, teacher’s performance is measured for his ability to
- establish a rapport with the students, involve them in every activity of the lesson and keep them interested
- maintain a good balance of teacher talking time and student talking time
- consider the feelings of the students, encourage them with their learning and praise for their effort
+ As for Teacher’s manner and Use of English, the teacher is highly appreciated when he:
- is flexible to suit a particular situation
- gives a good model of English
- uses English naturally, e.g can answer students (unexpected) questions
Summary
In summary, effective teaching depends on a number of significant elements such as teaching materials, teaching methods, classroom management and student learning outcome The evaluation of teaching by means of classroom observation should take these into account To serve teachers well, the premium focus of observation and evaluation should be on teacher professional growth A cooperative relationship between observers and teachers are expected with their working together for the improvement in teachers’ pedagogical practice The reviews of criteria for evaluating teaching indicate that the focal points are mostly on teachers’ knowledge and their instruction and management skills, the use of teaching aids and student learning Teachers are supposed to master instructional skills, to have good knowledge of pedagogies, to adopt good teaching manner and to be able to create active learning atmosphere in class What also emphasized are their flexibility of using the instructional methods; their monitoring the students’ progress and their interest in motivating students to learn.
THE STUDY 2.1 The context
An overview of present curriculum and textbooks in upper-secondary school
Recent trends for international integration have exerted a strong impact on Vietnam’s educational development strategies As the result, there have been a lot of changes in educational field in general and in language teaching in upper-secondary schools in particular The most remarkable change is the implementation of new English curriculum and textbooks at secondary education level It was an effort made by MOET to enhance the quality of English learning and teaching in upper-secondary schools These new textbooks were written based on modern teaching approaches, namely the Learner-centered Approach and Communicative Approach (Van et al., 2006) There are two main lesson types in the textbooks: the skill lesson (which focuses on the development of the four skills: Reading, Listening, Speaking and Writing) and the Language Focus lesson (which focuses on the presentation and practice of pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar points of the unit)
Observation and teaching evaluation practice in upper-secondary context
Recent trends for international integration have exerted a strong impact on Vietnam’s educational development strategies As the result, there have been a lot of changes in educational field in general and in language teaching in upper-secondary schools in particular The most remarkable change is the implementation of new English curriculum and textbooks at secondary education level It was an effort made by MOET to enhance the quality of English learning and teaching in upper-secondary schools These new textbooks were written based on modern teaching approaches, namely the Learner-centered Approach and Communicative Approach (Van et al., 2006) There are two main lesson types in the textbooks: the skill lesson (which focuses on the development of the four skills: Reading, Listening, Speaking and Writing) and the Language Focus lesson (which focuses on the presentation and practice of pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar points of the unit)
2.1.2 Observation and teaching evaluation practice in upper-secondary school context
Teaching evaluation is a common practice in every school in Vietnam It is carried out every school year to evaluate the quality of teachers’ teaching Teachers’ teaching is assessed based largely on the information collected by means of classroom observation
For the evaluation, each teacher has at least two lessons observed by his/her colleagues (at the school level) or by educational inspectors (at the provincial level) At the provincial level, the observers of the teachers’ lessons are educational inspectors who are appointed by the Department of Education and Training (DOET) to act as representatives of the Department with a job to examine and evaluate the pedagogical work of teachers
The evaluation of teachers’ lessons is carried out according to the evaluation criteria for lesson effectiveness mandated by MOET This set of criteria has been used for all subjects in secondary school context for a long time The criteria consist of five main aspects of the lesson to be gauged that include Teaching content, Teaching methods, Teaching aids, Class management and Learning outcome Each main aspect consists of some more criteria (See Appendix 3)
Observing and evaluating teacher performance is a hard and complicated work (William, 1989; Richards, 2004) In Vietnam’s upper-secondary schools, the practice is getting more and more challenging due to the changes in language teaching and learning, especially the changes in curriculum and textbooks which entail new guidelines on teaching methods In addition, as there is only a single set of criteria used for assessing lessons of various subjects, it is open to question whether the teachers’ understanding of the criteria is congruent with that of the observers This should be taken into account as divergences in interpretation of the criteria potentially lead to disagreement between observers and teachers.
The participants
There are two groups of participants in this study: the teachers and the inspectors who evaluate teachers’ teaching
Six teachers, three males and three females, have taken part voluntarily in the semi- structured interviews These teachers vary in terms of age, training backgrounds and teaching experience Their age ranges from 27 to 49 with one teacher over 40, one below
30 and four from 30 to 35 The teacher who has the most teaching experience of all has taught English for 15 years The teacher who has the least teaching experience has taught English for only four years They teach in a number of schools in the province including public and private schools As for training backgrounds, two of the teachers have full-time university degrees in foreign language teaching, and the other four have part-time university degrees All of them have attended training sessions in relation to the implementation of new English curriculum and textbooks organized by DOET Apart from that, they have little opportunity for in-service training courses for professional growth
There are two inspectors taking part in the study These inspectors, who are above 50, have much experience in language teaching Both of them have full-time university degrees in foreign language teaching They have worked as provincial educational inspectors for more than 15 years However, they have hardly any chance to be trained in the matter of teaching evaluation What they have in hands are some written documents on general regulations on teacher evaluation and the criteria for evaluating teaching issued by MOET.
Method of data collection
Interviews have been used by a lot of researchers as an effective research method which allows for gaining insights into one’s thinking about an issue concerned In this study, semi-structured interviews have been conducted to explore teachers’ and inspectors’ perceptions of an effective lesson The questions focus on the aspects of the lesson prescribed in MOET’s evaluation criteria, which have been used as guidelines for evaluating teachers’ teaching in secondary schools for years The questions are aimed at uncovering the general views teachers and inspectors hold about the evaluation criteria, their interpretation of the criteria and their suggestions for criteria for an effective lesson
The teachers and the inspectors were informed of the focus of the interviews in advance, which gave them some time for preparation The talks were conducted in Vietnamese to help the teachers and the inspectors express their viewpoints at ease The contents of the interviews were then transcribed and analyzed.
Data analysis
Data were mainly analysed according to 10 evaluation criteria prescribed by MOET
These criteria are summarized as follows:
Criterion 1: Subject matter knowledge is accurate and scientific
Criterion 2: Subject matter knowledge is systematic and adequate; teaching points are made clear
Criterion 3: Subject matter knowledge is related to real life and educational
Criterion 4: Teaching methods are appropriate to the subject and lesson types
Criterion 5: Teaching methods are well combined in teaching and learning activities
Criterion 6: Teaching aids are used effectively and appropriately
Criterion 7: There is good use of the board; lesson plan is appropriate
Criterion 8: Teaching procedures are carried out flexibly; time is allocated appropriately for the activities
Criterion 9: Teacher organizes and guides active learning; the activities are appropriate to lesson types and particular students; students are motivated
Criterion 10: Most students understand the lesson, master the teaching points and know how to apply what has been learnt to new situations
2.4.1 Teachers’ perceptions 2.4.1.1 Teachers’ general perceptions of MOET’s evaluation criteria
Generally, the teachers agreed that the criteria covered important aspects of a lesson and helped to orientate teachers’ performance towards effective teaching Regarding the value of the current criteria for evaluating teaching, Teacher 1 said in the interview that,
I think the criteria can orientate teachers’ work Teachers can base on them to prepare their lesson better
In a similar vein, Teacher 2 believed that the current criteria were appropriate to the evaluation of teaching English
The criteria address necessary aspects of a lesson, appropriate to the English subject as well as other subjects Teachers can rely on the criteria to adjust their teaching for the better I think the lesson will be successful if the requirements in the criteria are met
However, most of the teachers interviewed stated that some criteria were not explicit enough and that there need to be appropriate indicators of some criteria when used to assess an English lesson For example, Teacher 6 and Teacher 4 stated that,
The criteria need to be elaborated For the criteria to be appropriate to the evaluation of an English lesson, some criteria should be added such as teacher’s flexibility in teaching activities or teacher and student interaction in the lesson (Teacher 6) The criteria need to be concrete so that they can help teachers understand about the requirements for a good lesson (Teacher 4)
2.4.1.2 Teachers’ interpretation of MOET’s evaluation criteria
Criterion 1: Subject matter knowledge is accurate and scientific
The teachers shared common ground when stating that subject matter knowledge delivered by teachers must be lexically, grammatically and phonetically accurate They highlighted that teachers’ presentation of the grammar points or vocabulary in the lesson should be perfectly accurate However, errors made in their classroom language may be overlooked For example, Teacher 4 believed that,
Accurate subject matter knowledge means the accuracy of grammar, pronunciation in teacher’s speech and writing It’s very important because students only make right sentences when teacher presents accurate grammar or vocabulary
This was echoed by Teacher 2 that,
Teachers need to give accurate language knowledge such as pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary However, if teachers give wrong pronunciation of a word when they are speaking, this shouldn’t be treated as their inaccuracy of language knowledge
Criterion 2: Subject matter knowledge is systematic and adequate; teaching points are made clear
Some of the teachers made the point that the delivery of systematic knowledge meant the activities or tasks in the lesson were arranged in the order of difficulty Easy tasks were dealt with before more difficult ones were tackled (Teacher2, Teacher 3) Besides, a systematic lesson could be understood as the full prescribed stages of the lesson being followed This was elaborated by Teacher 1 below:
There are three stages in the skill lesson: pre-stage, while-stage and post-stage In the language focus lesson, the lesson is divided into three phases: Presentation – Practice and Production In order for a lesson to be systematically adequate in terms of subject matter knowledge, I think teachers should follow all stages in their lessons
Teacher 5 also understood this criterion as the coverage of everything in the textbook She said,
I think when the teacher has covered all the activities prescribed for a lesson, it can be understood that knowledge content is systematically delivered Classroom teachers are supposed to deliver adequate content to the students However, according to some teachers interviewed, this does not mean all the matters in a lesson are thoroughly dealt with Teachers can make some adjustments to the tasks to suit their students’ strengths (Teacher 2, Teacher 3, Teacher 6) Giving explanation for this, Teacher
6 voiced his difficulties when teaching the new text book:
It is impractical to expect teachers to cover all the things prescribed in a 45-minute lesson, especially when there are long and difficult tasks The important thing is that the teaching points are well-touched Once the teaching points are made clear to students, the job of teachers should be appreciated
He went on to put an emphasis on the lesson teaching points:
Teachers are supposed to identify the main objectives of the lesson and spend more time on this This is the indication of teaching points being made clear.
Criterion 3: Subject matter knowledge is related to real life and educational
The teachers in this study shared a view that teachers in class needed to relate teaching content to real life, which made it comprehensible to students In this case, students’ ability to use language for communication purpose would be developed This was elaborated by three teachers in the interview below
Teachers need to create a situation which is close to students’ life This helps students apply what they have learnt to real life (Teacher 2)
Teachers’ presentation of knowledge in the lesson is not enough It is necessary for them to help students to relate that knowledge to real life (Teacher 3)
Teachers can create real situations in class, or in students’ life What associated with students’ real life will aid their comprehension and boost their application of knowledge (Teacher 6)
Criterion 4: Teaching methods are appropriate to the subject and lesson types
As for the matter of appropriate teaching methods, the teachers interviewed interpreted this differently For example, Teacher 2 said,
Appropriate method is the good combination of a range of methods in teaching activities For example, teachers use a range of methods to correct students work or to elicit ideas from them
However, according to Teacher 6, the use of appropriate methods depended on a number of factors
To decide what method to take, teacher first needs to identify the main points of the lesson and the students’ language proficiency levels Students of different levels need different methods so that they can understand teacher’s instructions, take in lesson content effectively, and know how to put the knowledge into practice Appropriate methods are those which are appropriate to each kind of students
Teacher 1 also mentioned the language level of students when discussing appropriate methods According to him, appropriate methods were those used by teachers to assist students in mastering the forms of the language in the lesson He gave an example of this as follows:
Discussion of the findings
From the results of the interviews with teachers and inspectors for their perceptions of an effective lesson based on the Ministry-mandated evaluation criteria, it can be seen that the teachers and the inspectors have shared common points on the general criteria for an effective lesson According to them, the criteria have covered the necessary aspects of the lesson including Teaching content, Teaching methods, Teaching materials, Class management and Student learning outcome These are also the areas where teachers’ and inspectors’ perceptions intersect with ideas in the literature on language teaching Other researchers have also taken these as important attributes when judging effective teaching
As for methods of instructions, the teachers and the inspectors interviewed insisted that what teachers in class did should be appropriate to students’ strengths Put it another way, teachers should be flexible in handling teaching and learning activities Researchers in the field agreed that the use of method should be context-sensitive Sizer (2009) stated that teachers should be flexible and have confidence to react and adjust to changing circumstances In the same vein, Rivers (2003) postulated that teachers’ own way of teaching should be developed and strengthened in response to the needs and individual strengths of their students in their own context In terms of the use of teaching aids, the teachers and the inspectors were aware of the need to the use teaching aids in class, especially teacher-made teaching aids Other researchers also regarded the effective use of visual aids as one of the criteria for a successful lesson (e.g Kerby et al 2002)
The teachers and the inspectors expressed their views on the need to care for students, making them all involved in teaching and learning activities Other views on teaching also urged teachers to pay more attention to student learning For example, SCOLT (2002) emphasized the importance of student learning in evaluating teachers’ quality of teaching
According to them, teachers should provide beneficial learning experience for students so that their learning outcome would be enhanced One more factor that contributes to the success of a lesson is teaching manner which was highly appreciated by the teachers and the inspectors In their opinions, friendly teachers were more likely to motivate students to learn in a safe learning environment This point was shared by Kusuma and Powell (2004) when they stated that what teachers were encouraged to do was to establish a positive classroom environment that would support future interaction and collaboration between teacher and students and between students themselves
Apart from the commonly-shared points as to what constitute an effective lesson, there are a number of divergent points between teachers’ and inspectors’ perceptions and researchers’ views Most of the teachers and inspectors emphasized the importance of the delivery of systematic knowledge in a lesson Adequate knowledge content of the lesson was taken as a sign of systematic knowledge The connection between new knowledge and previous knowledge was not mentioned In fact, knowledge retention was enhanced once teachers knew how to relate it to previously presented language items (Davies & Pearse,
2000) As regards the methods adopted by teachers in class, the teachers’ and inspectors’ perceptions coincided with other studies when it was stated that appropriate methods were those that were appropriate to different kinds of learners However, further insights into their perceptions revealed great divergences from what prevailing in the field of research
The teachers as well as the inspectors seemed to emphasize the reproduction of language forms instead of creating opportunities for pupils to use the target language for real life communication This can be seen in the way Teacher 1 said how he dealt with students’ difficulties in doing speaking tasks He said that when many of his students failed to do the speaking task, he helped them to write down the questions and answers so that they could look at them and repeat easily Inspector 1 also highlighted the linguistically accurate answers in a reading comprehension task He stated that one of the features of an effective lesson was that all answers were given out grammatically correct Other researchers tended to emphasize a balance between focus on form and focus on meaning in language practice activities (e.g Skehan cited in Kumaravadilevu, 2006) This is because focus on form makes a lesson language-laden, which makes it hard for students to absorb What students are expected to gain after a lesson is not the sole linguistic knowledge but the development of learning strategies or the ability to communicate a message effectively (Hedge, 2000)
Such differences between teachers’ and inspectors’ perceptions and ideas in the literature represent a fact that teachers and inspectors may have limited access to different views on language teaching This reality indicates a need for teachers and inspectors to enrich their knowledge of teaching methodology by avail themselves of every opportunity to get access to various sources of materials related to language teaching, and more importantly, sharpen their skills of adapting them to their own context
Further insights into teachers’ and inspectors’ thought process also uncovered divergences in their understanding of what constitute an effective lesson The divergences are related to their explanations for what are appropriate teaching methods, their perceptions of accurate subject matter knowledge in terms of pronunciation, and the matter of lesson completeness From the inspectors’ requirements for an effective lesson, it seems that inspectors fail to refer to the constraints teachers have to face in their own teaching context They probably hold dominant views on what constitutes an effective lesson and apply the prescribed standard for every lesson observed In that situation it is difficult for teachers to voice their own views What may emerge is dissatisfaction from teachers
When inspectors take the position of someone who gives top-down judgements of what is supposed to be done in a lesson, their comments are of little use to boosting teachers’ professional growth Teacher needs more than judgemental comments from inspectors
Researchers’ views on observations are increasingly in favour of the use of observation to promote teacher development For example, Minhis (as cited in OIAP, 2007) states that observation is not simply the tool to evaluate teachers but it is the tool that should be used to foster teacher professional growth For this to be done, according to Williams (1989), the observer should be supportive during the after-lesson feedback, appreciating the teacher for the positive aspects of the lesson The observer and the teacher then make joint decision as to which aspects need to be focused on next time
One more remarkable finding was drawn from the study when teachers and inspectors were asked for their own opinions about the criteria for an effective lesson apart from what mentioned in MOET’s evaluation criteria What mostly focused on were the flexibility of teachers in teaching activities, the use of teaching aids, the organization of student learning activities and teaching manner What is worth attention is that most of the inspectors’ and teachers’ ideas can be treated as possible indicators of MOET’s criteria for an effective lesson This indicates that it is necessary to make all MOET’s criteria explicit with corresponding indicators sensitive to subject particularities so that teachers and inspectors are sure of the requirements for lesson effectiveness, which is of great use to teachers’ teaching and inspectors’ teaching evaluation
The study aimed at exploring upper-secondary school teachers’ and inspectors’ perceptions of an effective English lesson based on MOET’s evaluation criteria The interview data from the study indicated the complexity of teacher’s and inspectors’ perceptual process This can be seen in the findings from the study as follows:
- Although teachers and inspectors have shared a number of common points on general criteria for lesson effectiveness, divergences still exist in their understanding of what constitute an effective lesson
- There are both convergences and divergences between teachers’ and inspectors’ perceptions and ideas in the literature on language teaching
- Teachers’ and inspectors’ suggestions for criteria for an effective lesson indicate that MOET’s evaluation criteria should be explicit with corresponding indicators sensitive to the subject particularities
In general, teachers’ and inspectors’ opinions converged on the main aspects of a lesson that need attending to when a lesson is evaluated for its effectiveness The aspects include Teaching content, Teaching methods, Teaching aids, Class management and Learning outcome, which are prescribed in MOET’s evaluation criteria However, deeper insights into their thought process have revealed significant divergences in their perceptions of effective teaching The findings also indicate that both convergences and divergences exist between teachers’ and inspectors’ views and ideas in the research field
It may be natural to find both the convergences and divergences (Canh & Barnard,
2009) The important thing is why any divergences should exist, and to which extent these might affect language teaching and teaching evaluation What obvious is that teachers’ teaching is affected by contextual factors such as students’ language proficiency level, their learning styles, teachers’ limited professional development opportunities or lack of teaching facilities Contextual factors are influential in teachers’ perceptions of effective teaching Thus, their perceptions of effective teaching may differ from theoretical knowledge in the literature on language teaching in a number of points This suggests that there need to be a negotiation between the body of knowledge in research and teaching reality in particular teaching context so that the quality of language teaching can be enhanced As for the inspectors, since the evaluation criteria are not explicit enough, subjective interpretation is inevitable The subjective viewpoints still prevail in the way inspectors evaluate teachers’ teaching if they fail to refer to the current knowledge in the field of language teaching as well as teaching evaluation, especially the context in which teaching takes place The problem is that the mismatch between the teachers’ and inspectors’ perceptions may lead to the situations in which inspectors’ judgements of teacher’s instructional practice cause dissatisfaction from teachers, which discourages them to thrive in their teaching Thus, for the sake of fair and developmental teaching evaluation, it is necessary and urgent that the gap between teachers’ and inspectors’ perceptions should be narrowed.
Implications
Teachers’ understanding about what should be done in a language class, to some extent, goes against current views on language teaching This is not surprising as interference of contextual factors into teaching process has been acknowledged However, this may also emerge from the reality that the teachers are still unwilling to get access to the body of knowledge in the field of language teaching It is for sure that in order to prosper in their teaching, teachers should get hold of the principles of language teaching and try to select some theoretical knowledge to apply to their own teaching Through this process, they can find out what is appropriate and what needs to be adapted for their classrooms to generate desired learning outcome
Changes in the field of language teaching with widespread acceptance of various teaching methods call for the adoption of new viewpoints on teaching evaluation Perhaps, it is not fair to evaluate teachers’ teaching solely through evaluators’ subjective viewpoints without referring to wide source of knowledge in the field of research or without attending to challenges teachers have to face within their own teaching context Research into the matter of teaching evaluation has emphasized the need for evaluation to respond to teaching context (e.g Gowan, 1975; Murdoch, 1998) Inspectors should not adopt a fixed way of evaluation for every teaching context They need to refer to contextual factors before making their final decision Above all, the focus of inspectors’ job should be on fostering teacher development rather than on grading teacher’s work (Seal, 1989)
To enhance the quality of teaching evaluation towards boosting teacher professional growth, educational administrators should be aware of the differences in perceptions of effective teaching between teachers and inspectors as well as their expectation for the evaluation criteria It is important that opportunities for professional development should be provided for teachers so that they can enhance their teaching skills Also, inspectors should be provided with proper training in the matter of evaluation (Sheal, 1989) As regards the evaluation criteria, it is imperative that not only inspectors’ voice but also teachers’ voice be heard (Wajnryb, 2001) This suggests that local teachers and inspectors should be granted with opportunities to express their views about the criteria and corresponding indicators for an effective lesson Their negotiated opinions will be good reference for local educational administrators to introduce concrete guidelines on lesson evaluation with subject-sensitive criteria fit into local context This being done, the evaluation criteria can act as an effective tool that helps teachers and inspectors to fulfill their responsibilities.
Limitations of the study and suggestions for further research
Some limitations are evident in this study First, the number of participants is small
The findings of the study, therefore, may not be generalized effectively for larger contexts
Moreover, what teachers think may not correlate with their true lesson delivery practice as there is “empirical evidence of the frequent incongruence between beliefs and their actual practices” (Borg cited in Canh 2009, p.21) This may lighten the significance of the study findings
On account of the limitations of the single-method study, what is needed is further research with mixed methods to get more comprehensive and more in-depth information which can be generalized for wider contexts Also, the area that is worth further research is the extent to which teachers’ perceptions are translated into their classroom teaching activities
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I Questions about teachers’ general perceptions of the MOET’s evaluation criteria
- Do you think the criteria have covered all necessary aspects of an English lesson?
- Are the criteria explicit enough?
- To what extent do you think they are appropriate to an English lesson?
- How useful do you think the criteria are to teachers’ teaching? Do they orientate teachers towards better teaching?
II Questions about teachers’ interpretation of the criteria
- What is meant by accuracy of subject matter knowledge?
- What does the teacher have to do to ensure that teaching content is systematically delivered?
- What is meant by the full coverage of teaching content of the lesson?
- What are the indications of teaching points being made clear?
- What should the teacher do to relate teaching content to real life situations?
- What is meant by appropriate teaching methods for the English subject?
- What is meant by the methods that are appropriate for lesson types?
- What are the indications of good combination of methods in teaching and learning activities?
- How should teaching aids be used in the lesson so that they can enhance its effectiveness?
- What’s meant by appropriate use of the board?
- What does an appropriate lesson plan include?
- How flexible should the teacher be in carrying out the teaching procedures?
- How should the teacher allocate time for teaching and learning activities in the lesson?
- What should teachers do to organize active learning in class?
- What should be done to motivate students?
- What are the indications of students understanding the lesson, mastering the teaching points and being able to apply what has been learnt to new situations?
III Teachers’ suggestions for the criteria for an effective lesson
- What are your suggestions about criteria for an effective lesson?
I Questions about inspectors’ general perceptions of the MOET’s evaluation criteria
- Do you think the criteria have covered all necessary aspects that are needed for the evaluation of an English lesson?
- Are the criteria explicit enough?
- To what extent do you think the criteria are appropriate to an English lesson?
- How useful do you think the criteria are to inspectors’ teaching evaluation? Do you think they are a reliable tool for evaluating teachers’ lessons?
II Questions about inspectors’ interpretation of the criteria
- What is meant by teacher’s of presentation of accurate subject matter knowledge?
- What does the teacher have to do to ensure that teaching content is systematically delivered?
- What is meant by the full coverage of teaching content of the lesson?
- In what way do you think the teacher has made teaching points clear?
- What are the indications of teaching content being related to real life situations?
- In what way do you think that teacher’s methods are appropriate to the English subject?
- How do you know that teacher’s methods are appropriate to lesson types?
- What are the indications of good combination of methods in teaching and learning activities?
- In what way do you think the teacher has used teaching aids effectively?
- What’s meant by appropriate use of the board?
- What does an appropriate lesson plan include?
- What are the indications of flexible teaching procedures carried out by the teachers?
- How do you know that the teacher has allocated time for the activities appropriately?
- What should teachers do to organize active learning in class?
- What should be done to motivate students?
- What are the indications of students understanding and mastering the language points and having the ability to apply what has been learnt to new situations?
III Inspectors’ suggestions for the criteria for an effective lesson
- What are your suggestions about criteria for an effective lesson?