Rationale
Among the four popular foreign languages in Vietnam: English, Chinese, Russian, and French, English has been the most popular since 1989 in political, economic, and socio-cultural aspects of Vietnam One reason for its popularity lies in Vietnam‟s establishment of diplomatic relationships with 174 countries, and economic and trade ties with almost all countries and territories in the world
Evidently, English competence enhances the presence of Vietnamese because English is used as a means of communication in these organizations In addition, the current popularity of English in Vietnam arises from common demand because English is the key to science, technology and commerce In terms of how the popularity of English has influenced common Vietnamese, the processes of modernization, industrialization, integration, and globalization provide the Vietnamese with more opportunity to improve their study, work, and living conditions However, these processes and opportunities also force them to work harder to be better prepared for social demands In particular, Vietnamese more and more are required to be able to communicate in English and even be fluent in English for work and study in an international environment
Modern language pedagogy attaches a lot of importance to communication and training language learners who are able to communicate effectively in the target language In a language classroom following communicative approach, language teachers are eager to have learners who are willing to use the language in class The reason is that researches have shown that a lack of willingness to use the language results in ineffective interaction and language production So, it is true that the notion of Willingness to Communicate (WTC) plays a key role in learning a second/foreign language MacIntyre et al (1998) conceptualized a heuristic model of WTC in L2 in order to explain the interrelations among affective variables influencing the WTC in L2 The heuristic model is associated with the perspective of interrelated variables” (MacIntyre et al., 1998) The heuristic model is also associated with the perspective that the L2 student‟s intention to communicate (WTC) is significantly connected to his/her actual L2 communication
Despite the rich findings from previous researches, most of the previous studies have been conducted in Western countries Until recently, little research related to WTC has been conducted in a foreign language learning (EFL) context where there is usually no immediate linguistic need for learners to use English in their daily life
Therefore, understanding the variables that might increase or decrease language learners‟ opportunities and readiness to speak in language classrooms seems to be pertinent in today‟s context.
Aims and objectives of the study
(1) Exploring the extent to which students are willing to communicate in English classes; and
(2) Identifying factors that might affect students‟ willingness to communicate in English classes
These two aims are specified into the following objectives:
(1) Gaining understanding of how students participate in English speaking tasks in the classroom
(2) Finding out why students participate in classroom tasks and the way they do
Research Questions
In order to achieve the above aims and objectives, the study was designed to find out answers to the following research questions:
1 How willing are the students to communicate in English in the classroom according to their self-reports?
2 What factors likely affects the students‟ willingness to communicate in the classroom?
Scope of the study
The study limits itself to the investigation into how students in one private university participate in classroom speaking tasks and the factors affecting their participation Thus, the study itself is largely a survey study
A mixed-method approach was adopted in this study to achieve its aims and objectives
For the quantitative part of the study, which could find out the general level of the selected participants‟ WTC, the researcher randomly selected four level 3 classes (30 students each) of students to take part in the questionnaire survey
For the qualitative part of this study, which could help to find out factors influencing students‟ WTC, the researcher randomly selected 16 students from the
120 students who had completed the questionnaire to take part in the individual interviews (four from each class).
Design of the study
This thesis consists of three chapters
Chapter One reviews previous literature and research relevant to the research questions addressed in this study It also introduces the fundamental theoretical knowledge underlying WTC, and reviews some major findings from empirical research studies concerning L2 WTC Previous researches are subsequently listed and as a consequence, two research questions are raised for investigation
Chapter Two describes the methodological approach employed in the current study A mixed-method design is adopted to enrich the data from different perspectives The major research instruments, the WTC questionnaire and semi- structured interviews are identified This chapter also describes procedures for collecting and analyzing data
Chapter Three reports key findings from an analysis of the research data These include results based on the use of both quantitative and qualitative research techniques Results from a content analysis of the interview data are also
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definition of Willingness to communicate (WTC)
WTC is a relatively new variable in SLA The notion of WTC was originally introduced with reference to first language communication, and it was considered to be a personality-based, trait-like predisposition that remained stable across different communication situations (McCroskey & Richmond, 1991) WTC - (McCroskey &
Baer, 1985, McCroskey 1992) can be defined as the probability that an individual will choose to initiate communication, more specifically talk, when free to do so (MacIntyre &Charos, 1996) As such, WTC can be conceptualized as a goal of second language instruction, a variable that facilitates language learning itself, and an internal psychological event with socially meaningful consequences Initiating communication represents the culmination of a network of processes at both the cultural and individual levels In essence, the notion entails an intention to initiate a communicative behaviour, and this behavioural intention is often predictive of actual behaviour (MacIntyre, 1994) WTC in L2, however, was reinterpreted as a situational variable, open to change across situations It was defined as “a readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with a specific person or persons, using a L2” (MacIntyre, Dửrnyei, Clộment, & Noels, 1998, p 547) Specific to a L2 classroom, WTC was defined by Oxford (1997) as “a student’s intention to interact with others in the target language, given the chance to do so” (p 449) WTC is also defined as a learner‟s „„readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with a specific person or persons, using a L2” (MacIntyre et al., 1998, p 547) As
Dửrnyei (2003) points out, competence in the L2 may not be enough Learners need to be not only able to communicate but also willing to communicate in the L2
Research has shown that a learner‟s WTC influences how frequently the learner actively engages in communicating in the L2 (Cle´ment et al., 2003; Yashima et al.,
2004) Thus MacIntyre et al (1998) propose that WTC in L2 should be conceptualized as the primary goal of language instruction and as a comprehensive conceptual framework to describe, explain and predict L2 communication behavior.
Heuristic Model of WTC in L2
MacIntyre et al (1998) proposed a conceptual pyramid-shaped structure incorporating a range of potential linguistic and psychological variables that appeared to influence WTC in L2 (see Figure 1) The level of conceptualisation, intergroup communication process, and the issue of time were all integrated in this pyramid model WTC was identified as a behavioural intention, the final step to using a L2 with a specific person They made a distinction between immediate situational factors and enduring influences that underlie WTC in the L2 The situational factors (for example, desire to communicate with a specific person and state communicative confidence at a given time in a given place), which were seen as more dependent on the specific situation at a given moment of time, were placed within the first three layers, from the top of the pyramid The enduring influences (for example, intergroup motivation, communicative competence, intergroup climate, and personality), which were comparatively distal and stable factors, formed the foundation of the pyramid This model explores the interrelations among affective variables influencing WTC in L2 that could explain and predict second language communication The significance of this heuristic model lay in it being the
“first attempt at a comprehensive treatment of WTC in the L2” as a situation-based variable (MacIntyre et al 1998, p 558) In this model, L2 WTC is conceptualised at the state level rather than at the trait level (MacIntyre, 2007) The major flaw with this model, as (MacIntyre, 2003) acknowledged, is that the pyramid is one- dimensional like a triangle, thus it does not reflect the interrelationship between and the weighting of the various components (Dửrnyei, 2005), and that the transition from distal influences to proximal effects is not a simple hierarchy, because at times distal influences such as social situation can bypass proximal ones
Figure 1: MacIntyre et al.’s heuristic model of WTC in L2 (1998)
A considerable number of research studies have been conducted to validate some parts of this complex pyramid model in both western and Asian contexts MacIntyre and his associates carried out several empirical studies in the Canadian immersion context, with a main focus on the identification of any correlation of WTC with a number of factors from this model These studies revealed that the strongest predictors of WTC in this model included communication anxiety and perceived communicative competence (Clément, Baker, & MacIntyre, 2003) For example, Baker and MacIntyre (2000, 2003) compared an immersion (n = 71) to a non- immersion programme (n = 120) and examined the effects of the programs on some variables in the model including perceived competence, WTC, frequency of communication, communication anxiety, and motivation of students who had English as their L1 and were studying French as their L2 Based on questionnaire and interview data, it was found that anxiety and perceived competence strongly predicted WTC and frequency of communication Similarly, MacIntyre, Baker, Clément and Donovan (2003b) conducted a study among university-level students
(n = 59) to evaluate differences between French immersion and non-immersion students in terms of WTC, communication anxiety, perceived competence, integrative motivation and frequency of communicating All these variables were measured by a questionnaire survey The results showed that WTC correlated strongly with motivation in the immersion group but not in the non-immersion group WTC was found to be predicted by communication anxiety but not by perceived competence in the immersion group The reverse was true for the non- immersion group – WTC was predicted by perceived competence but not communication anxiety These results lent support to the pyramid model; that communication anxiety, perceived competence and motivation have a direct relationship with WTC A number of recent studies tested MacIntyre et al.‟s (1998) heuristic WTC model in the EFL contexts including Chinese, Turkish and Korean contexts (Atay & Gokce, 2007; Cetinkaya, 2005; Kim, 2005; Peng, 2007b) The studies carried out in these different EFL contexts suggested that WTC is strongly predicted by motivation, attitudes towards international community, perceived linguistic self-confidence (a combination of communication anxiety and perceived communicative competence), and desire to learn English Peng (2007b) partially replicated MacIntyre et al.‟s (2003b) study by examining the possible relationship between integrative motivation and L2 WTC among Chinese college students learning English in an intensive programme (n = 174) The WTC questionnaire adapted from MacIntyre et al (2001) was used to measure the effects of motivation and social contexts on L2 WTC Integrative motivation was measured by the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery used in Hashimoto‟s (2002) study Peng‟s findings showed motivation to be the strongest predictor of L2 WTC and that integrative motivation accounted for a small proportion of variation in L2 WTC Attitudes towards the learning situation were not found to predict L2 WTC Therefore, Peng argued that motivation was an important impetus in stimulating learners to persevere in both L2 learning and possibly L2 communication in an EFL context
Cetinkaya‟s (2005) study examined whether MacIntyre et al.‟s (1998) model explained the relations among social-psychological, linguistic and communication variables in the Turkish EFL context at the tertiary level (n = 356) Following a hybrid design to combine both quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis procedures, this study employed both questionnaires and interviews This study investigated the interrelations among students‟ WTC in L2, motivation, communication anxiety, perceived communication competence, attitude toward the international community, and personality Qualitative interviews were used to extend and elaborate these quantitative results
Unlike Peng‟s (2007b) study which found no relationship between attitudes towards the international community and WTC, structural equation modelling revealed a consistent relationship between the students‟ WTC in L2 and attitudes as well as perceived linguistic self-confidence Students‟ motivation to learn English and degree of introversion/extroversion were found to be indirectly related to their WTC through linguistic self-confidence
In summary, the empirical studies on L2 WTC carried out in different contexts provide some evidence for the applicability of MacIntyre et al.‟s heuristic model across contexts There seems to be a focus on use of quantitative methods in WTC research such as structural equation modelling to examine the causal relationship between WTC and its antecedents The aforementioned studies pinpoint the influences of affective/individual variables such as motivation, perceived linguistic self-confidence, motivation and language attitude on WTC Because of limited time and effort, the researcher only focused on these mainly affected factors affecting students‟ WTC in class in this study.
Factors affecting students‟ WTC
In order to gain insight into the relationship between WTC and its determinants, this section presents a comprehensive review of the empirical research which has focused on identifying factors that may exert an influence on WTC in L2.In the past decade, a number of research studies into L2 WTC have been carried out in order to explore the relationships between L2 WTC and various ID variables, such as personality, self-confidence, attitudes, and motivation (MacIntyre&Charos, 1996;
Yashima, 2002) Among a number of individual variables, self-confidence has been frequently, by many researchers, found to be the most immediate antecedent of L2 WTC (Yashima, 2002) A number of factors have also been identified as directly or indirectly predictive of WTC, including personality (MacIntyre&Charos, 1996), L2 attitude and international posture (Yashima et al., 2004), gender and age, and social support and learning contexts (Clément, Baker &MacIntyre, 2003) Some other factors such as security, excitement, responsibility, and classroom environment and so on, have also been found to have an influence on WTC (Kang, 2005) In this study, four most popular underlying factors that affect students‟ WTC in class according to previous studies will be discussed
In regard to self-confidence, Clément (1986) claimed that it included two constructs: perceived competence and lack of anxiety, and these two constructs represent relatively enduring personal characteristics In contrast to Clément‟s concept of trait-like self-confidence, MacIntyre et al (1998) suggested state communicative self-confidence as indicated in Layer III of their WTC model was a momentary feeling of confidence which might be transient within a given situation
For example, in an evaluation situation, an L2 interlocutor may experience a very high state of anxiety and low perceived competence, even though the individual may possess considerable and persistent self-confidence across other situations
According to MacIntyre et al (1998), L2 self-confidence in Layer IV of their WTC model is somewhat different from the state communication self-confidence in Layer III, in that L2 self-confidence in Layer IV stands for “the overall belief in being able to communicate in L2 in an adaptive and efficient manner” This self-confidence can be affected by two components: “the self-evaluation of L2 skills, a judgment made by the speaker about the degree of mastery achieved in L2”; and language anxiety when using an L2 Communicative competence, together with experience, contributes to self-confidence Higher self-perceived communicative competence leads to higher self-confidence, and perhaps a higher L2 WTC
In some of earlier empirical research on L2 WTC (MacIntyre & Charos, 1996), self- confidence has been consistently found to be the most immediate antecedent of L2 WTC MacIntyre and Charos (1996) postulated that the intention or willingness to engage in L2 communication was determined by “a combination of the student‟s perception of his or her second language proficiency, the opportunity to use that language, and a lack of apprehension about speaking”
Based on earlier research results that introverted people are less likely to communicate than are extraverts, McCroskey and Richmond (1990) have proposed that the personality trait dichotomy of introversion/extraversion is an antecedent to WTC According to McCroskey and Richmond (1990), introverts are not required to communicate as often as they tend to be less socially active than extraverts; however, extraverts, on the other hand, require communication to facilitate social interaction and place a higher value on communication Therefore, extraverts are more likely to be willing to communicate and have a stronger willingness to communicate than the introverts In MacIntyre et al.‟s (1998) model, although personality is not conceptualized as a direct influence on an individual‟s L2 WTC, it still plays an indirect role on WTC through other affective variables such as attitudes, motivation, and confidence For example, the possession of a certain personality can predict how an individual will react to members of the L2 community in regard to L2 communication An L2 student with an authoritarian personality type may avoid having communication with L2 community members
Thus, personality was found to be indirectly related to L2 WTC through linguistic self-confidence
A number of L2 researchers such as Gardner, MacIntyre, Spolsky have claimed that language attitude is one of the most important factors in predicting the level of success in SLA In order to describe language attitudes, Gardner (1980) refers that
“the concept „attitude‟ will be used to denote the sum total of a man‟s instinctions and feelings, prejudice or bias, preconceived notions, fears, threats and convictions about any specified topic” In regard to the roles of attitudes in relation to the learning situation in SLA, L2 researchers have hypothesized that positive attitudes toward the learning situation are important for the success of SLA It is likely that L2 students with positive attitudes tend to consider L2 learning as enjoyable and beneficial, which may motivate the L2 students to be more active in performing classroom activities in the L2 Naiman et al (1975) found significant correlations between the measure of attitudes and L2 students‟ volunteering by raising a hand in class, and between L2 students‟ volunteering and the amount of effort they spent on L2 learning; L2 students with positive attitudes toward L2 learning would volunteer more in class, and reported studying hard to learn the L2 (cited in Gardner et al.,
1978) It is probable that more active participation and effort in L2 learning can enable L2 students to achieve more significant results in L2 learning Consequently, language attitude is an important factor in predicting the level of success in SLA
In agreement with many other L2 researchers, Gardner (1985, 1988) argues that motivation is one of the important factors in predicting the success of SLA Gardner claims that motivated L2students extend their active and personal involvement in L2 learning, which can enable them to achieve successful L2 acquisition Because of the importance of motivation in SLA, L2 researchers argue that it is important for L2 educators and researchers to understand why L2 students learn their target L2
To explore factors of influencing the L2 student‟s motivation, Gardner and Lambert
(1959) first made a distinction between instrumental and integrative motivation
According to Gardner and Lambert, instrumental motivation refers to the L2 student‟s desire to learn his/her target L2in order to achieve his/her practical purposes such as acquiring good grades in school, securing a job, or obtaining a promotion On the other hand, integrative motivation is related to the L2 student‟s willingness to identify with members of his/her target L2 community At the early stage of conceptualizing motivation, Gardner and Lambert (1959) considered integrative motivation as superior to instrumental motivation in determining success of SLA (cited in Gardner &MacIntyre, 1993) Gardner and Lambert hypothesized that integratively motivated L2 students might be more active in participating in the L2 classroom, and maximize the opportunities to interact with members of their target L2 community out of the L2 classroom Active interactions with L2 members could enable L2 students to achieve L2 proficiency, especially in the oral aural features of proficiency It is shown that students who enter the intensive program with positive attitudes toward foreign language as an integrative motive appear to be much more successful in developing oral skills and perceive the program as more rewarding than those who are not similarly motivated.
Classroom WTC in L2
Some researchers (Dornyei 2005; MacIntyre et al 1998, 2003) have argued that the ultimate goal of language instruction should be the creation of WTC in the language learning process Given the relevance of WTC to language teaching and learning, it seems important to examine WTC as specific to the L2 classroom context, by considering the influence of the underlying variables of learners‟ WTC There has been increasing to research on WTC as situated in L2 classrooms and this body of research has investigated a number of areas in both ESL and EFL settings, including examination of learner perceptions of their WTC in L2 in class
Some research has focused on learner perceptions of WTC in class For example, House (2004) investigated learner perceptions of factors contributing to WTC in L2 among ESL learners, and relationships existing between these factors, through the use of diaries and interviews Six learners were asked to report their experiences over a 5-week period, and how perceptions of these experiences influenced their WTC inside the language classroom The results showed that WTC in L2 was affected by whether learners take up opportunities that they perceive as suitable for actually engaging in L2 communication He also found that factors such as perceived politeness, the role of physical locality, the presence of the opposite sex, mood, and the topic under discussion were minor influences affecting WTC
House‟s study was the first attempt to enable learners‟ perceptions of WTC to be voiced and heard Cao and Philp (2006) compared self-reported WTC and WTC behaviour in class This study employed triangulation as a technique to compare ESL learners‟ (n = 8) self-report of WTC to their actual WTC behaviour in three interactional classroom settings (whole class, small groups and dyads) and how their WTC behaviour differed in each of these contexts The results indicate that learners‟ self-reports of WTC are not necessarily predictive of their actual classroom behaviour It was also found that situational WTC could change in the classroom across the three interactional contexts, under the influence of situational variables such as group size, familiarity with interlocutors, the familiarity and interest of topic of discussion, and the confidence of the learner in relation to the task This study supported the use of classroom observation as an appropriate way to tap situational WTC in L2 in class Another study that employed the triangulation technique in investigating WTC in L2 was Liu‟s (2005) study This study examined Chinese tertiary students‟ reticence in oral English language classroom by employing questionnaires, classroom observations and reflective journals (n = 27) The study found that the factors that prohibited students‟ WTC in class were lack of practice, low English proficiency, lack of self-confidence, anxiety, cultural beliefs, personality, and fear of losing face This study highlighted the importance of searching for reticence-coping strategies to promote learners‟
Weaver‟s (2004) studies examined situational variables underlying WTC in L2 classrooms in relation to task types His study (2004) investigated Japanese learners‟ WTC (n = 1104) within an L2 classroom at tertiary level Unlike previous studies that exclusively adopted the WTC scale developed by McCroskey and Richmond (1990) in their questionnaire surveys, this study used a questionnaire developed by the researcher himself to investigate whether or not learner‟s L2 WTC would vary across 17 speaking situations and tasks potentially arising in this social context of a L2 classroom The findings revealed that students‟ WTC varied significantly across different speaking situations and tasks and suggest that task is a variable likely to contribute to changes in WTC in L2 classrooms From the review in the preceding sections of recent WTC studies carried out in different contexts, it can be seen that the WTC research still bears a very close relation to the most comprehensive theory of the WTC in L2 construct proposed by MacIntyre and associates (1998) It is noteworthy that the research is limited to employing a quantitative approach with data collected mainly from self-report questionnaires and with data then being subjected to statistical analysis to identify causal or correlational relationships between WTC and its predictors.
RESEARCH MOTHODOLOGY
Methodological Approach
The key issue associated with designing a mixed-method research design is how to combine quantitative and qualitative research effectively A quantitative research approach focuses on gathering numerical data and generalizing it across groups of people In contrast, a qualitative approach is based on descriptive data that does not make use of statistical procedures Quantitative and qualitative approaches have their own separate strengths and weaknesses Quantitative research can produce reliable and replicable data that is generalizable to other contexts, but is generally not very sensitive in uncovering the reasons for particular observations or the dynamics underlying the examined situation or phenomenon That is, the general exploratory capacity of quantitative research is rather limited (Dửrnyei, 2007)
Qualitative research, on the other hand, has traditionally been seen as an effective way of exploring new, uncharted areas (Dửrnyei, 2007), and describing second language acquisition in its natural context However, Duff (2006) has warned that although qualitative research may be helpful in providing insights into a phenomenon, the specific conditions or insights may not apply broadly to others (Dửrnyei, 2007) Therefore, mixed -method research which is a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods within a single research project has become common in recent years In this way , we can gain a better understanding of a complex phenomenon by converging numeric trends from quantitative data and specific details from qualitative data (Dửrnyei, 2007), and therefore arrive at a more multidimensional and accurate view of the process of second language acquisition
As a result, combining a qualitative approach with a quantitative approach in the current study should provide fuller, deeper, more meaningful answers to a single research question (Johnson & Christensen, 2008), and enrich the ability of the researcher to draw conclusions about the problem under study (Dửrnyei, 2007) The research design for this study was adapted from the design by Cao (2009) who studied the dynamics of WTC of the students studying English in New Zealand.
Participants and context
120 non-major students from 4 different classes studying English at Level 3 at Haiphong Private University were chosen as participants in this research The researcher randomly selected four level 3 classes (n0) of students to take part in the questionnaire survey The participating students, aged from 19-22, had studied English as a school subject for 3 years at junior high school and were in the first or second year of their university It is expected that students at this level have developed basic speaking skills after at least three or four years of study According to the researcher‟s previous experience teaching in this school, the students have few opportunities to speak English outside classrooms as there is almost no chance to contact with foreigners However, guided by the national curriculum, one present goal of Vietnamese Ministry of Education is to develop an all-round ability to use English, that is, to develop their skills in listening, speaking, reading, and writing
Just as MacIntyre et al (1998) indicate, the aim of language teaching should ultimately be to foster learners‟ willingness to engage in communication and their willingness to talk in order to learn Therefore, communicative interaction is increasingly justifying its place in the Vietnamese classroom Classroom management takes on more communicative characteristics with various types of group work and pair work Teachers are encouraged to cultivate students‟ communicative competence The target population in this school, therefore, is an appropriate one for the goal of this study.
Data collection
For the quantitative part of the study, the researcher randomly selected four different classes at level three to take part in the questionnaire survey
For the qualitative part of this study, the researcher randomly selected 16 students from the 120 students who had completed the questionnaire to take part in the individual interviews (four from each class) The sampling procedure for the interviews was simple random sampling, in which each of these 120 students had
“an equal and independent chance of being selected” (Fraenkel&Wallen, 2000)
The interview participants were randomly selected by the researcher It was hoped that the researcher would be able to interview both willing and less willing -to- communicate students The oral English class was offered once per week in a forty- five-minute session taught by native Vietnamese English teachers, who are all professionally qualified, at least with Master Degree on Pedagogical Teaching Methodology Interview data were collected on an MP3 recorder
A questionnaire is one of the most common methods used to collect data on attitudes and opinions from a large group of participants, and has been used to investigate a wide variety of questions in SLA The advantages of collecting data through the use of a questionnaire include the provision of answers to questions in a systematic and disciplined way, relative ease of construction, extreme versatility, and the ability to gather a large amount of information in a comparatively short amount of time and a readily usable form (Dửrnyei, 2007) Moreover, the aim of using questionnaire in research fits the purpose of the study
In this study, Cao‟s (2009) questionnaire was adopted The questionnaire consisted of 15 items related to students‟ willingness to engage in communication tasks during class time It covered situations or tasks that students were familiar with or found easy to imagine, and with differing amounts of cognitive demand The 15- item WTC scale was administered with instructions which asked students to indicate how willing they would be to initiate communication on a percentage scale (0-100%) in each of the 15 situations The questionnaire was translated into Vietnamese so it was much easier for students to understand and complete it
In order to understand deeply about Vietnamese students‟ willingness to communicate in English and the factors affecting this willingness, results of the questionnaire were extended and elaborated by the use of qualitative interviews
In order to examine the selected students‟ attitudes towards the English speaking international community, the researcher interviewed 16 randomly chosen students from 120 participants in a quiet room (the teachers‟ lounge) and the fifteen questions in WTC Interview Questions (see Appendix) are asked
In case the interviewees might have difficulty understanding the questions in English or do not like speaking English, and in order to increase the validity of the interviews, all the interviews were carried out by the researcher in Vietnamese
Firstly, the researcher focused on the completion and collection of the WTC questionnaires The participants were informed that their participation was entirely voluntary and that their participation in this study would not affect their achievement as well as their grades The participants were also informed that the data would be collected anonymously and kept confidential by the researcher The questionnaires took about seven minutes of class time to complete
The next step of data collection involved face-to-face interviews with the 16 randomly-chosen participants from these four classes The participants received the interview questions one day before the interview so they could have enough time to prepare their answers The interviewees were informed of the purpose of the study and assured that their responses would be confidential Interviews were conducted by the researcher in a quiet lounge Each interview took between ten to fifteen minutes and was recorded in an MP3 player
The questionnaire data were used to identify the general level of the selected participants‟ WTC Quantitative data from questionnaires were also factor analyzed
These factors then become themes that were compared with themes analyzed from the qualitative interview data Interview data were analyzed qualitatively in order to reveal factors that seem to contribute to the selected participants‟ willingness to communicate in English in classroom Then the research‟s result will be compared to previous studies on this field.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Findings
This chapter reports the results and discussions of the analysis of the data from this study, with reference to each of the research questions The data analyzed in the present study were collected from the self-report questionnaire surveys of 120 participants and interviews of eight of the selected participants who took part in the questionnaire surveys
Quantitative results from the data, gathered by means of questionnaire surveys are examined and key findings are presented in tables The findings from individual, face -to-face interviews with participants are also described These interviews were carried out for the purpose of qualitative content analysis
The first research question examined the extent to which Hai Phong Private University students are willing to communicate in English by means of a WTC questionnaire The WTC questionnaire consisted of 15 items, which were scored in such a way that the answer indicating the highest L2 WTC received 100 points, whereas the answer indicating the lowest L2 WTC received 0 points As a result, the higher the respondents‟ scores on the WTC scale are, the higher and stronger his or her WTC inside the classroom is assumed to be A score of more than 75 is taken to mean that students are always willing to communicate in English A score of less than 25 signifies that students are never willing to communicate in English
A score of between 26 and 50 means that students are sometimes willing to communicate in English, while a score of between 51 and 74 implies that students are usually willing to communicate in English
The 15 items in the questionnaire are categorized into different groups to measure students‟ willingness to communicate in English in class All the questionnaire items were grouped into two broad categories
Table 3.1: Less cognitively demanding and psychologically safe tasks
Item 8 Say sorry when you are wrong 3.2 8.7 9.4 78.7
Item 11 Read aloud the conversations in
Item 12 Say thank you in English when your classmates help you
Item 14 Greet your classmates in English 8.7 14.2 14.2 63.1
Item 2 Answer a question when being called upon by the teacher
Table 3.2: More cognitively demanding and psychologically safe tasks
Item 6 Present your own opinions in
Item 7 Participate in pair discussions in
Item 9 Helps others answer a question in
Item 15 Give a speech with notes in class 3.9 10.2 11.8 74.0
Item 4 Ask the teacher a question in
Item 1 Volunteer an answer when the teacher asks
Item 3 Talk to teacher in English before or after class
Item 5 Ask the teacher a question in
As revealed in Table 3.1 and Table 3.2, students seemed to be more willing to communicate interactionally than transactionally An overwhelming majority of them reported that they were willing to communicate in English in the classroom if the tasks were less cognitively demanding and psychologically safe, i.e interactional tasks For example, they are willing to say sorry or thank you in English when they were wrong or their classmates helped them respectively, and least willing to communicate in English with the teacher in private when they were unsure about the course content These items are of low cognitive demand, for example, Item 8, “say sorry in English to someone when you are wrong”; Item 12,
“say thank you when your classmates help you”; Item 11, “ read out the conversations in English from the textbook”; and Item 14, “ greet your classmates in English” This implies that the students tended to be highly willing to communicate in English if the speaking task was easy and simple
Table 2 also indicates that the AW frequency of the eight items comprising Item 6
“Present their own opinion in English in class”, Item 15, “give a speech with notes in class”; Item 9, “help others answer a question in English”; Item 4, “ask the teacher a question in English in class”; Item 1, “volunteer an answer in English when the teacher asks a question in class”; Item 7 “Participate in pair discussions in English in class”, Item 3, “talk to your teacher in English before or after class”; and Item 5, “ask the teacher a question in English in private” are quite low, suggesting that students in these situations were never or only sometimes willing to communicate in English Further analysis revealed that four of the eight items concerned speaking with the teacher and answering questions in English in front of the class This shows that students tended to be more unwilling to communicate in
English with their teachers However, students demonstrated higher WTC concerning Item 2, “answer a question in English when you are called upon by the teacher”, implying that students are willing to communicate with the teacher when they have to
Research Question One investigated “How willing are the students to communicate in English in the classroom according to their self-reports?” The data analysis suggests that the selected tertiary students have generally low levels of L2 WTC
This finding is generally consistent with the results of previous research conducted in Asian EFL contexts such as the research by Kim (2004), Weaver‟s (2005)
Although these studies used different instruments, they achieved similar results that the students‟ levels of L2 WTC were generally low Further analysis reveals that all these studies share the same learning context and similar Asian culture In foreign language settings, L2 learners learn the L2 primarily in the classroom They may have access to authentic materials in the classroom, but they have little opportunity to communicate with native speakers and can survive without the L2 This means that L2 plays only a small role in their daily communication
In the Vietnamese EFL context, students have little opportunity to speak with native speakers especially in rural provinces and they mainly acquire the L2 in classroom settings Considering the fact that the participants in this present study have few actual English communication opportunities outside the classroom, the classroom is regarded as the most appropriate place to speak an L2 However, from the result of the research, we can realize that their general L2 WTC is far from satisfaction
Despite their generally low L2 WTC, the selected students in the current study show very high willingness to use simple formulaic English such as “say sorry” or “thank you” when they are wrong or their classmates help them They also tend to be highly willing to read out conversations in English or greet classmates in English
This could imply that these students are highly willing to communicate in English when tasks are less cognitively demanding and psychologically safer It seems to suggest that language anxiety may be a key factor affecting their L2 WTC In Vietnam,requiring students to read aloud a passage or dialogue from a set text is a traditional method of language teaching Students‟ familiarity with the text helps reduce their language anxiety, and thus enhances their L2 WTC It is obvious that saying sorry or thank you in English and reading aloud are cognitively simpler and psychologically safer than language production Ely (1986) suggests that simply encouraging students to take more risks and participate more may not be effective
Students must be made to feel more psychologically comfortable and safe in their learning environment before they are expected to take linguistic risks As students come to feel more secure, they can be encouraged to assume a more active role in the classroom, thus leading to their more WTC in class, which plays an important role to decide their L2 speaking ability
In contrast to their high willingness to speak English in easy tasks, HPU students are least willing to talk to the teacher or ask the teacher a question both in private and in front of the class It can be inferred that they are least willing to communicate in English with their teachers and in front of their peers This might be explained in terms of our long culture as well as teaching and learning style Since hundreds of years, Vietnamese students rarely ask questions or volunteer answers as well as give criticisms of course content but sit silently in class or repeat exactly after teacher‟s words Under the influence of Confucian philosophy during Chinese invasion, students in Vietnam respect their seniors by looking up to teachers as authority figures and not challenging or interrupting them with any questions or comments
Therefore, students are reluctant to ask the teacher a question even if they are unsure about the course content because they do not want to challenge the teacher‟s authority
Summary
This section summarized the findings from both the quantitative and qualitative data of the present study Analysis of the quantitative data aimed to identify Vietnamese tertiary students‟ level of L2 WTC while the qualitative data was intended to reveal factors likely to influence their L2 WTC
Quantitative results from the self-report WTC data revealed that the selected 120 students‟ perception of their L2 WTC was generally low Further analysis found that students‟ WTC varied across contexts, and they were most willing to communicate in English when tasks were less cognitively demanding and psychologically safer This seemed to suggest that their actual L2 proficiency or self-perceived level of communicative competence may be a key factor affecting their L2 WTC This was further confirmed in the interviews with eight randomly selected participants Data from the interviews suggested that if students had a higher level of self-perceived competence, they would feel more confident, and thus their L2 WTC would increase
According to the quantitative data collected in this study, it was found that the participants were least willing to communicate with teachers in class, yet more willing to communicate with their teachers when directly called upon This could be explained by the Vietnamese students‟ passive way of learning, and our cultural values of face-protection In other words, cultural values may have an influence on trait-level WTC
Apart from the factors of L2 proficiency and cultural influence mentioned above, this study also identified some other factors possibly influencing HPU students‟ L2 WTC which were isolated from the interview data These factors included self- confidence, language attitude, self-perceived L2 proficiency, motivation and personality These factors are consistent with previous studies which have been conducted into L2 WTC
Concluding remarks
The main focus of this study was on understanding the factors that might influence students‟ L2 WTC, including self-confidence, personality, language attitude and motivation and self-perceived L2 proficiency One aspect of the current study which differs from most of those previously undertaken is that this study identifies factors that influence L2 WTC in the classroom from the point of view of learners rather than merely revealing the antecedents of WTC via self-report survey In addition, through the research, the relationships between these main factors and WTC were deeply taken into consideration
The findings of the present study show that students‟ WTC is a complex issue because it is affected by multiple factors related to the nature of the classroom tasks, the students‟ proficiency level and other learner factors However, it seems that students‟ proficiency in English affects most their WTC The students in this study reported that their oral communicative competence was limited (e.g limited vocabulary, speaking skills, etc.) Consequently, they were more willing to communicate in English if the tasks were less cognitively demanding such as apologizing, thanking or greeting For more cognitively demanding tasks, i.e transactional tasks students appeared to be divided In other words, approximately half of them were willing to participate in these tasks while the participation of the other half was comparatively low One interesting point to note is more than 85 % of the students reported that they were active in speaking English if they were allowed to prepare their speech in the form of notes Personality is also an important factor affecting students‟ WTC They reported that they felt nervous, inconfident or fearful of mistakes so they opted for avoidance strategies.
Pedagogical implications
The present study, through its detailed descriptions of WTC, offers valuable information for the purpose of teachers‟ reflection and classroom practice The results of this study have confirmed that WTC needs to be seen as an important component of SLA (Kang, 2005) Language teaching should ultimately foster learners‟ willingness to engage in communication and their willingness to talk in order to learn Therefore, it seems that an increased knowledge of the nature of WTC, coupled with its potential effects on classroom interaction, would benefit both individual instructors and students In EFL contexts like Vietnam, L2 learning mainly occurs in a classroom setting, so generating and enhancing students‟ L2 WTC in the classroom plays a decisive role in improving students‟ L2 learning
On the basis of the information teachers gain about their students‟ WTC, they need to design tasks that are more suitable and more engaging Allowing enough time for the students to prepare before ask them to speak out in the classroom is necessary
Students in this study said they would be happy to speak English in the classroom with their notes
Most importantly, creating a friendly classroom environment is of great importance
Many students said they were not willing to communicate because they felt nervous or they were afraid of making mistakes Teachers‟ tolerance to students‟ errors are so important.
Limitations of the study and suggestions for further studies
Although the researcher has tried her best, several limitations to the present study are noteworthy One obvious limitation results from the small sample involved in the interviews The interview data represent a sample of just sixteen learners; therefore, it was not possible to adequately address the research questions except as they relate to these learners, or to generalize the findings to a wider L2 population
As a result, further research incorporating a similar design, and a larger sample size, would be of value
The study use only the questionnaire and interview as instruments of data collection Therefore, the findings are based in the students‟ self-reports It is not clear whether their self-reports mirror accurately their actual participation in classroom communication in English This problem may affect both the reliability and validity of the study Despite this drawback, the findings of the study provided some useful information about the need to design communicative tasks that are on par with the students‟ proficiency level and to create a safe learning environment in the classroom These may help to increase the students‟ WTC Classroom observation and students‟ diaries are needed in the future research to achieve better reliability and validity
In addition, the focus of this study was confined to the speaking mode of L2 WTC
However, MacIntyre et.al (1998) argued that L2 WTC not only covers the speaking mode but also other modes of communication In order to obtain a more comprehensive picture of L2 WTC, future studies could focus on L2 WTC not only in the oral mode but also listening, writing, and reading
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APPENDIX A: WTC Questionnaire (English version)
APPENDIX B: WTC Questionnaire (Vietnamese version)
Bạn đã học Tiếng Anh được bao lâu rồi? …
Hướng dẫn:Sau đây là 15 tình huống bạn có thể chọn giao tiếp hoặc không giao tiếp bằng Tiếng Anh Giả định rằng bạn có toàn quyền lựa chọn Hãy chỉ ra mức độ bạn sẵn sàng giao tiếp bằng Tiếng Anh trong từng tình huống bằng cách điền một số bất kì từ 0 đến 100 vào chỗ trống phía bên tay trái cạnh từng tình huống
0% = KHÔNG BAO GIỜ sẵng sàng giao tiếp bằng Tiếng Anh 100%= LUÔN LUÔN sẵng sàng giao tiếp bằng Tiếng Anh
… 1 Sẵn sàng trả lời câu hỏi bằng Tiếng Anh khi được giáo viên hỏi trước lớp
… 2 Trả lời câu hỏi bằng Tiếng Anh khi được giáo viên gọi
… 3 Nói chuyện bằng Tiếng Anh với giáo viên trước và sau tiết học
… 4 Hỏi giáo viên 1 câu hỏi bằng Tiếng Anh trong lớp học
… 5 Hỏi giáo viên 1 câu hỏi bằng Tiếng Anh riêng tư
… 6 Trình bày ý kiến của mình bằng Tiếng Anh trước lớp
… 7 Tham gia làm việc theo cặp trong giờ Tiếng Anh
… 8 Nói Xin lỗi bằng Tiếng Anh khi bạn sai
… 9 Giúp các bạn khác trả lời câu hỏi Tiếng Anh
….10 Hát một bài hát Tiếng Anh 11 Đọc to đoạn hội thoại Tiếng Anh trong sách giáo khoa
….12 Nói Cảm ơn bằng Tiếng Anh khi được bạn giúp
….13 Giới thiệu bản thân bằng Tiếng Anh mà không cần nhìn vào ghi chú
….14 Chào bạn bằng Tiếng Anh
….15 Thuyết trình bằng Tiếng Anh khi có ghi chú
APPENDIX C: Semi-structured WTC Interview Questions (English version)
1 Have you ever had the chance to communicate with a foreigner in English?
2 How important is it for you to learn English?
3 How good are you at learning English?
4 What do you think your English level is like? What about your speaking skill in particular?
5 How motivated were you in learning English?
6 How much did you like learning English with your classmate?
7 How would you describe your personality (quiet or talkative, relaxed or tense)?
8 How competent do you think you were to communicate in English?
9 Did you feel confident when speaking English in class?
10 Were you afraid that other students would laugh at you when you were speaking English?
11 In what situation did you feel most comfortable (most willing) to communicate (in pair, in small group, with the teacher in a whole class)? why?
12 How do you like it if your teacher lectures in English?
13 Do you hope that your English teachers will speak English more in class?
14 Would you like to have more opportunities to speak English in class?
15 What do you think are the main factors that affect your willingness to speak English in class?