Luận văn thạc sĩ VNU ULIS ho xuan huong high school in vĩnh tường, vĩnh phúc m a thesis linguistics

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES PHÙNG THỊ THU A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE USED IN POLITICAL ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE NEWSPAPER HEADLINES ON THE MAJOR EVENTS IN THE IRAQ WAR NGHIÊN CỨU SO SÁNH HÀM NGÔN HỘI THOẠI ĐƯỢC SỬ DỤNG TRONG CÁC TIÊU ĐỀ CHÍNH TRỊ VỀ NHỮNG SỤ KIỆN QUAN TRỌNG TRONG CHIẾN TRANH IRAQ CỦA BÁO CHÍ TIẾNG ANH VÀ TIẾNG VIỆT M.A Minor Programme Thesis Field: English linguistics Code: 60.22.15 Hanoi, 2013 LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES PHÙNG THỊ THU A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE USED IN POLITICAL ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE NEWSPAPER HEADLINES ON THE MAJOR EVENTS IN THE IRAQ WAR NGHIÊN CỨU SO SÁNH HÀM NGÔN HỘI THOẠI ĐƯỢC SỬ DỤNG TRONG CÁC TIÊU ĐỀ CHÍNH TRỊ VỀ NHỮNG SỤ KIỆN QUAN TRỌNG TRONG CHIẾN TRANH IRAQ CỦA BÁO CHÍ TIẾNG ANH VÀ TIẾNG VIỆT M.A Minor Programme Thesis Field: English linguistics Code: 60.22.15 Supervisor: Professor Nguyễn Hòa Hanoi, 2013 LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com DECLARATION I certify that this minor thesis entitled “A comparative study on Conversational Implicatures used in Political English and Vietnamese Newspaper Headlines on the major events in the Iraq War” submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts is the result of my work, except otherwise acknowledged and that this minor thesis and any part of the same has not been submitted for a higher degree to any other university or institution Hanoi, March 2013 Signature Phung Thi Thu i LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Over the past two years I have received support and encouragement from many individuals to accomplish this research Therefore, I hereby would like to express my profound gratitude to all of them Above all, I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my supervisor, Professor Nguyen Hoa for all his invaluable inspiration, assistance, guidance and encouragement as I was working on my study Besides, I am grateful to all lecturers and staff of Faculty of Postgraduate Studies, University of Languages and International Studies for their valuable lessons and precious help Thanks to them, I could get the essential materials for my paper Finally, my sincere thanks go to my parents and my friends who always stand by me and support me when I was doing the research Without their encouragement, I would not have been able to complete this thesis ii LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com ABSTRACT The headlines of the newspapers play a crucial role in helping the readers save energy and time to get information for the reason in that the headlines have the capacity of encapsulating the story in a minimum number of words and, in a particular edition, giving the readers an overall picture of the current news To implement their functions, the headlines are inquired to exploit the linguistic resources which conversational implicature is considered in as an effective tool The present study was conducted to compare the use of conversational implicature of the English and Vietnamese newspapers on the coverage of the major events of Iraq War and the linguistic competence which the readers need to have to understand implicature The objects of the research are 30 headlines, 15 Quân Đội Nhân Dân and 15 New York Times headlines in the different periods from March 20th to April 10th 2003, December 1st to 31st 2006 and August 1st to 31st 2010 The analysis includes examining the means to generate implicature which consist of lexical and syntactic features and communicative competence Based on the findings, it is concluded that both English and Vietnamese newspapers show their creativity in using the lexical and syntactic features to generate conversational implicature However, the Maxim of Quantity and Manner are flouted in the Vietnamese newspaper headlines whereas the Maxim of Quantity, Manner and Relation are flouted in English ones iii LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Abbreviation Meaning NYT New York Times QDND Quan Doi Nhan Dan newspaper iv LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com TABLES OF CONTENT DECLARATION………………………………………………………………………… i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………… ii ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………… ………… iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .iv TABLES OF CONTENT………………………………………………………………… v PART A INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………… 1 Rationale of the study ……………………………………………………………… Aims of the study…………………………………………………………………… .1 Scope of the study……………………………………………………………………… Methods of the study…………………………………………………………………… Design of the study………………………………………………………………… PART B DEVELOPMENT…………………… ………………………………… .4 CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………… 1.1 Theories on conversational implicature …………………………………………… 1.1.1 Co-operation and implicature …………………………………………………… 1.1.2 Conversational implicature…………………………………………………………5 1.1.3 Types of conversational implicature……………………………………………….6 1.1.3.1 Generalized conversational implicature ………………………………… 1.1.3.2 Particularized conversational implicature …………………………………7 1.1.4 Properties of conversational implicature………………………………………… 1.2 Communicative competence …………………………………………………………10 1.2.1 Background Knowledge………………………………………………………….10 1.2.2 Informal Reasoning……………………………………………………………….11 1.2.3 Observance of Cooperative principles……………………………………………12 1.3 Newspaper headlines …………………………………………………………………14 1.4 The conversational implicature in the newspaper headlines …………………………14 1.5 Discourse of the Iraq War ……………………………………………………………15 v LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com CHAPTER 2: METHODS AND PROCEDURE……………………………………….17 2.1 Data collection method 17 2.2 Data analysis procedure 17 2.3 The analysis 18 CHAPTER 3: PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS……… 20 3.1 Lexical devices……………………………………………………………………… 20 3.1.1 Naming referents 20 3.1.2 Lexicalization 21 3.2 Syntactic features 23 3.3 Communicative competence 26 3.3.1 Background knowledge ………………………………………………………… 26 3.3.2 Informal reasoning 29 3.3.3 Observance of cooperative principles .30 PART C CONCLUSION 33 Recapitulation 33 Conclusion .35 Limitations and suggestions for further study 36 REFERENCES 37 APPENDICES .I Appendix 1: New York Times headlines …………………………………………… I Appendix 2: Quan Doi Nhan Dan headlines……………………………………………….II vi LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com PART A: INTRODUCTION Rationale of the study These days, online newspapers have undeniably become one of the most useful sources of information Online newspapers are increasingly popular due to the availability and convenience they provide With the internet, readers have a choice to read a great deal of diverse online newspapers Consequently, the readers are likely to be flooded with such an amount of new information for which they have neither time nor energy to process In this case, the headlines help them get the maximum out of this informational flood for the minimal cognitive investment The headlines provide the readers with an optimally relevant presentation of their stories A good headline is one which helps the reader deduce the maximal amount of contextual effects for the minimal amount of processing effort However, to write a good headline, the writers have to exploit a diversity of linguistic resources in which implicature is considered to be very helpful Realizing the significance of implicature in news headlines, this study is carried out to investigate the use of implicature in transferring the information to the readers in the language of English and Vietnamese newspaper headlines Moreover, this study also investigates the communicative competences which are necessary for readers to understand the implicature Aims of the study The study deals with the exploitation of conversational implicature in the Vietnamese and American political headlines Therefore, the study is aimed specifically: - To investigate how conversational implicature is created in political English and Vietnamese Newspaper Headlines on the major events of the Iraq war LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com - To find out the communicative competences the readers need to comprehend conversational implicature Scope of the study The study focuses on analyzing the political headlines in the press, not on television or radio The Iraq war lasted from 2003 to 2011 but due to the limit of time, this research is only concerned with the main events of Iraq war, particularly the development of the War in March 2003, December 2006 and August 2010 The newspapers are selected to be studied are Quan Doi Nhan Dan (QDND) - the Vietnamese daily newspaper and one popular American- New York Times (NYT) Methods of the study The study is an attempt to carry out an analysis of English and Vietnamese newspaper headlines on some of the most important events of Iraq war in terms of implicature Specifically, it focuses on how implicature is used to convey the information about this war The study combines both qualitative and quantitative methods Firstly, a theoretical framework for the research is set up involving the theories and studies on implicature and communicative competence The former section consists of conversational implicature, some properties and features of conversational implicature The latter includes relevant background knowledge, informal reasoning and observance of Grice‟s principles Secondly, I conduct the analysis and synthesis of the data in both English and Vietnamese newspapers and compare the way the implicature is used and interpreted The analysis is based on Grice‟s conversational implicature theory For a further description of the methods of the study, see chapter LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com normally a military attack However, the adjective “tai họa‟‟ that implies something as the causes of suffering and loss obviously showed a very negative connotation Thanks to background knowledge, the readers understand the headline‟s implicature that the moment when the U.S forces invaded Iraq was a disastrous G-hour causing the extremely bad consequences and effects on Iraq Now look at the other headline: Rô-bớt Ghết, người vừa bổ nhiệm làm Bộ trưởng Quốc phịng Mỹ: Mỹ khơng thể thắng chiến I-rắc (06/12/2006) The general background knowledge on the war, the U.S and Iraq is required to comprehend the implicature of the headline The name “Rô-bớt Ghết‟ or Robert Gates followed by the appositive “người vừa bổ nhiệm làm Bộ trưởng Quốc phòng Mỹ” help the readers know who the headline mentions However, they really perceive what is implied in this headline when knowing the information about Robert Gates Robert Gates served for 26 years in the Central Intelligence Agency and the National Security Council, and under President George H W Bush as Director of Central Intelligence Gates also served as a member of the Iraq Study Group that was a ten-person bipartisan panel charged with assessing the situation in Iraq and the US-led Iraq War and making policy recommendations On November 8, 2006, Robert Gates, who was confirmed with bipartisan support, accepted the nomination for Secretary of Defense, replacing Donald Rumsfeld Therefore, the QDND newspaper implies that in Gates‟ position, he can understand clearly the situations of Iraq and the U.S.A so his saying is considered as an affirmation that „America cannot win in the Iraq War‟ Taking the headline of August 12th 2010 as an example, „Chiến lược An ninh quốc gia Mỹ- có mới?‟, this headline mentions the name of a new mission of the U.S forces called Operation New Dawn when U.S troops withdraw and the others who remain in this country will focus on the task of training Iraqi soldiers 27 LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com and support the anti-terrorism campaign and the civil works of the host country The American military changed their missions but they still wanted to “continue its world leadership role through the creation and promotion of the capacity of the power and influence.” Therefore, the headline seems to give the doubt if the U.S armies really change or they still have not yet released from the world's hegemonic ambitions In this case, the readers need to know the Iraq and the actions of the U.S forces before and during the time of Operation New Dawn For English newspaper, to understand the implicit meanings of the headlines, the readers need to have background knowledge about the President George Bush and his vow or promise to free the Iraqi people Bush speech ends tense countdown to action (21/3/2003) Bush renews vow to 'free' Iraqi people (1/4/ 2003) Obama to Speak of Kept Promises in Address on Ending Combat Mission in Iraq (31/08/2010) In the above headlines, the readers should know that George Walker Bush is the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009 In the speech on March 20 th 2003, George Bush gave the reasons why the U.S and coalition military forces arrived Iraq He said they were „to disarm Iraq, to free its people and to defend the world from grave danger‟ or „make every effort to spare innocent civilians from harm‟ From the background knowledge, the readers could understand that the author appeared to imply that the American army only wanted to help Iraq solve the problems it was facing, not attacking in order to invade this country In 2010, the 44th President of America, Barack Obama announced the drawdown of U.S troops, which helped fulfill a promise he made during the 2008 presidential campaign The knowledge about the Presidents of the U.S and their promises is an effective means to cognize the implications of the headlines 28 LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com 3.3.2 Informal Reasoning The characteristic point of informal reasoning competence is to reason It means that the readers take the information the words of the headlines give as premises and then reason to cognize the conversational implicature Looking into an headline, Mở chiến dịch “Cú sốc kinh hoàng” Mỹ ném 1.500 bom, tên lửa xuống I-rắc (23/3/ 2003), it helps the readers get enough information about the bombing of the U.S force From the numbers of bombs and missiles thrown, the inference is made that the action of the U.S is violent As for English headlines, „the U.S defense officials warn of dangerous days in Baghdad (4/4/ 2003)‟, its implicit meaning is shown mainly by the words „warn of dangerous days in Baghdad‟, that is, the U.S informs that Iraq will have dangerous because the American military are powerful It may be considered as a threat to the Iraqi forces In term of NYT headline, the headline on December is „A Broken Iraq: Who Owns It Now?‟ The word „A broken Iraq” enables the readers to think that the Iraq now is separated and destroyed It is our belief that the Iraqi people clearly own their country However, if it is obviously true that the answer is the Iraq people, why is the question necessarily given? The implicit meaning inferred via the question “who owns it now?” is that the Iraqis have not completely had the ownership of the nation Their government and nation is interfered by another force Now the headlines about the execution of Saddam Hussein are chosen to be analyzed QDND newspapers with the headline „Nhiều nước phản đối việc hành ông Xát-đam Hút-xen‟ (31/12/ 2006) provides readers enough information to perceive By using the quantifier „many‟, not the exact number or the names of the countries, the readers can reason that Vietnam is one of them Consequently, the newspaper shows a neutral opinion and partly also objects the execution of Saddam Hussein On the previous day, the NYT published the headline „Dictator Who Ruled 29 LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com Iraq With Violence Is Hanged for Crimes Against Humanity‟ without the name of the dictator The writer used a relative clause to describe the dictator and he is executed because of the inhuman crimes he made Through the information of the headline, the readers not only know who the dictator is but also see the viewpoint of the author Besides, there is a headline that contains a metaphor In „For Obama, Steep Learning Curve as Chief in War (28/08/2010), the metaphor Steep Learning Curve can make the readers have trouble in comprehending the headline but it may have an effect in inspiring their curiosity According to Collins COBUILD Advanced Learner's Dictionary 5th Edition, „a learning curve is a process where people develop a skill by learning from their mistakes A steep learning curve involves learning very quickly‟ Thus the headline infers that learning from the mistakes is one very important element in the war 3.3.3 Observance of Cooperative Principles According to Grice‟s co-operative principle, there are four maxims that are expected to be followed by all speakers in the conversation As for headlines, the speakers are also the writers of the articles who want to transfer the information to the readers Now some headlines are analyzed to investigate if they satisfy all the maxims or which maxims are flouted in the English and Vietnamese news headlines In the first event, the starting of the war, each newspaper had the way to give the news differently For QDND, the headline on 20th March consists of six letters which does not mention anything about war and two sides „Giờ “G” tai họa đến‟ When the readers see the headline, they may want to ask "which event? Why is it suffering?” By providing less information than required, the headline flouts the 30 LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com maxim of Quantity Moreover, it is ambiguous for the readers to understand “why „Giờ “G”‟ is described tai họa? and to whom this disaster comes Apparently, the headline flouts the maxim of Manner The other headlines not consist of the obscurity Most of them are given enough information for the readers to know the articles following them about the conflict between the U.S and Iraq Take another headline into consideration on „Bush speech ends tense countdown to action‟ (21/3) Based on the background knowledge, the readers know that somebody is longing for a significant great event However, the headline does not mention who is longing for the event, the forces of U.S.A and their allies or Iraqi people On 20 March 2003, the United States launched a war against Iraq, with President Bush saying the attack was to "disarm Iraq and to free its people” This shows that the headline flouts the maxim of Quantity Moreover, it also makes the obscurity, which means that it flouts the maxim of Manner Analyzing the second headline “In Iraq, Western Clocks, but Middle Eastern Time‟ on the fourteenth of August 2010, it mentions the clock and times However, it is undeniable that “clocks in the West cannot show the times in the Middle East‟, in the other word, the headline says what we believe to be false Therefore, it flouts the Maxim of Quality Moreover, the words of headline appear to be irrelevant to the topic that is being discussed, which causes obscurity of expression Therefore, the headline flouts the Maxim of Relation The flouting of the maxims is to generate the implicature that the American really worries about the drawdown from the Iraq because the dates for the withdrawal have been set for the U.S As for Vietnamese headlines, some not observe the maxims The headline “Hy vọng nghi ngờ (04/08/ 2010)” is an example which is selected to be analyzed It has no words related to the war or two sides of the war Thus it is difficult for the readers to know that this is about the Iraq war Moreover, the readers raise the 31 LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com questions Hope for whom or what? Doubts about what?, that is, the headline is ambiguous Undoubtedly, the headline flouts the maxim of Quantity and Manner This can be found in some other headlines as follows: Khi tướng Mỹ “rào trước đón sau” (23/08/ 2010) Hậu họa chủ thuyết sai lầm(30/08/2010) Hỗn loạn bất lực (30/08/2010) Bình minh chưa ló rạng (31/08/ 2010) 32 LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com PART C: CONCLUSION Recapitulation As mentioned in the result and discussion section, it is seen that there are some similarities and the differences between the utilization of conversational implicature in Vietnamese and English newspaper headlines In this part, the findings of the research are summarized briefly and clearly Naming referents QDND uses a diversity of the nouns “trận tử, trận chiến đẫm máu” and evaluative connotations as „tai họa‟ after the head noun „Giờ G‟ The newspapers seem to give the huge predictable loss of the war Moreover, the negative words which refer to the war show that QDND obviously condemns the war NYT uses the reference „tense countdown‟ to inform the launching time of the war The referent presents a mild, even biased attitude because it seems that the war is praised as an important and vital event to releasing people from stress Lexicalization In the selection of words, the NYT choose the words about the sudden attacks that are considered as threats to the Iraqi country Moreover, the newspapers utilize two metaphors „Iraq Maze‟ and „Iraq tinderbox‟ to depict how the Iraq was From the words selected, the NYT really would like to show off their power and lower the Iraq The implicature created by the selection is the affirmation that the U.S force is very powerful The headlines of the newspapers obviously want the readers to see that the U.S forces were more predominant and they are bound to defeat the Iraqi in this war 33 LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com In contrast, the QDND headlines utilize the words “Kết cục bi thảm”, “chủ thuyết sai lầm” to censure the U.S invasion and their policies in Iraq In addition, the choice of words does not express the optimistic attitude to the prospects of Iraq when the American forces withdraw Syntactic feature The similarity is that both the Vietnamese and English features use the complete sentences and many noun phrases as headlines This is the common feature of the headlines because they are to save room of the paper and appeal the readers‟ curiosity The difference is the utilization of active sentences with different purposes The Vietnamese headlines are in active voices with the subjects “„Mỹ‟, „liên quân MỹAnh‟ to illustrate the violent actions of the U.S army The headlines are the affirmation that the U.S will not be able to win in the war In case of the NYT, the active sentences are effective means to express their dominated position Communicative competence The similarities about communicative competences are that to the headlines of both newspapers, the general background knowledge required mainly is the knowledge of the Iraq forces, the U.S forces and some campaigns Besides, informal reasoning shows the importance in helping the readers identify and interpret the implicature Last but not least, most of the headlines observe the maxims of Grice cooperative principles However, the difference is that the Vietnamese newspapers mainly flout the Quantity and Manner maxim while the English newspapers have the headline “In Iraq, Western Clocks, but Middle Eastern Time‟ that flouts the maxim of Quantity and Relation 34 LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com Conclusion The thesis investigates the exploitation of conversational implicature in the Vietnamese and English political headlines on the coverage of three major events of Iraq War The pragmatic theoretical framework on which the study is based is Paul Grice‟s implicature theory The objects of the study are 30 Vietnamese and English headlines in the period of March 20th to April 10th 2003, December 1st to 31st 2006 and official end of combat from August 1st to 31st 2010 The findings of the research show that the writers of English and Vietnamese are highly creative when they utilize flexibly and vividly the lexical devices and syntactic feature to create the conversational implicature underneath the headlines Moreover, it is transparent that implicature plays an important role in the headlines of newspapers, especially the political ones Through analyzing the utilization of implicature, the features and the hidden ideology of each newspaper are relatively visible to the readers The Vietnamese newspaper in question keeps the disapproving look on the Iraq war while its counterpart has tried to justify the violent actions and threaten the other forces against them Via the analysis of the application of communicative competence, we have found out how the readers use these competences to interpret the implicature During the processing of information, the readers use general background knowledge, then reason and observe the cooperative principles The readers need to apply the linguistics competences in a general, repeated way before coming to the final conclusion in order to understand the writer‟s intention 35 LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com Limitations and suggestions for further study On a personal note, I believe that the research undertaken offers some interesting insights into the issue of implicature as used in headlines However, it may be worth mentioning the following points In the first place, number of headlines taken for the study may not be large enough The selected headlines are selected from one Vietnamese and one English newspaper and focused on the three main events of so many ones of Iraq War Secondly, the study just focuses on a few syntactic features at the expense of others Despite such limitations, I hope that my research is useful to some extent Although this is just a small-scale study on this issue, it really helps the readers realize the importance of conversational implicature in conveying the writers‟ message to the readers Therefore, I recommend that a larger scale research with deeper and more comprehensive analysis should be encouraged to carry out Any further study can be conducted with a larger database collected from a diversity of newspapers And it should cover the analysis of more syntactic features with more events 36 LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com REFERENCES Vietnamese Đỗ Hữu Châu (1995) Giản yếu ngữ dụng học Hue: Education Publishers Nguyễn Thiện Giáp (2000) Dụng học Việt ngữ Hanoi: Vietnam National University Publishers English Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary 2nd Edition (2005) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Canale, M.; Swain, M (1980) Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing Applied Linguistics, 1, 1–47 Retrieved June 27, 2012 Canale, M (1983) “From communicative competence to communicative language pedagogy” in Richards, J.C & Schimdt, R.W Language and Communication Harlow: Longman Chomsky, N (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press Collins COBUILD Advanced Learner's Dictionary 5th Edition (2006), London: HarperCollins Publishers Dochy, F.J R.C & Alexander, P.A (1995) Mapping prior knowledge: a framework for discussion among researchers European Journal of Psychology of Education, 10(3), 225-242 Dor, D (2003) On Newspaper Headlines as Relevance Optimizers Journal of Pragmatics, 35, 695-721 37 LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com Grice, H P (1975) Logic and conversation Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Hymes, D.H (1972) "On communicative competence" In Pride, J.B.; Holmes, J Sociolinguistics: selected readings Harmondsworth: Penguin, 269–293 Kronrod, A., & Engel, O (2001) Accessibility theory and referring expressions in newspaper headlines Journal of Pragmatics, 33, 683-699 Kujawa, S., & Huske, L (1995) The Strategic Teaching and Reading Project guidebook (Rev ed.) Oak Brook, IL: North Central Regional Educational Laboratory Levinson, S C (1983) Pragmatics Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Levinson, S C (1992) Pragmatics Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Means, M.L., & Voss, J.K (1996) Who reasons well? Two studies of informal reasoning among students of different grade, ability, and knowledge levels Cognition and Instruction, 14, 139-178 Nir, R (1993) A discourse analysis of news headlines Hebrew Linguistics, 37, 2331 Nir, R (1994) Text and Context – An Analysis of Journalistic Discourse Jerusalem: Academon Press Peccei, J S (2000) Pragmatics Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press Orecchioni, C.K (2004) Introducing polylogue Journal of pragmatics, 26, 1-24 Teo, P (2000) Racism in the News: A Critical Discourse Analysis of News Reporting in Two Australia Newspapers Discourse & Society, 11, 7–49 38 LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com Thomas, J (1995) Meaning in Interaction: An Introduction to Pragmatics London: Longman Trew, T (1979) Language and control London: Routledge and Kegan Ltd Reah, D (1998) The Language of Newspapers London: TJ International Ltd Yule, G (1996) Pragmatics Oxford: Oxford University Press Websites Barack Obama Retrieved October 5, 2012 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama George W Bush Retrieved October 5, 2012 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W._Bush Green, N., & Carberry, S (1992) Conversational Implicatures In Indirect Replies Retrieved February 25, 2012, from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.13.8749 Báo Quân Đội Nhân Dân Iraq War Retrieved October 10, 2012 from the website http://www.qdnd.vn/qdndsite/vi-VN/43/Default.aspx New Yorks Time Iraq War Retrieved October 10, 2012 from the website http://global.nytimes.com/ Iraq War Retrieved October 5, 2012 from the website http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq_War Saddam Hussein Retrieved October 5, 2012 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein 39 LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com APPENDICES APPENDIX New York Times Headlines Bush speech ends tense countdown to action(21/3/2003) An early, convert strike Special forces led raids on Iraq outposts (24/3/2003) Bush renews vow to 'free' Iraqi people (1/4/2003) War on the cheap? Tensions mount over U.S troop levels (3/4/2003) U.S defense officials warn of dangerous days in Baghdad (4/4/2003) In Iraq's version, war has only one outcome U.S attacks provoke defiant optimism (7/4/2003) Cheers in Baghdad as regime crumbles (10/4/2003) A Broken Iraq: Who Owns It Now? (01/12/ 2006) In the Iraq Maze, Seeking an Exit (11/12/ 2006) What Surrounds the Iraqi Tinderbox (24/12/ 2006) Dictator Who Ruled Iraq With Violence Is Hanged for Crimes Against Humanity (30/12/ 2006) In Iraq, Western Clocks, but Middle Eastern Time (14/08/2010) As Mission Shifts in Iraq, Risks Linger for Obama (21/08/2010) For Obama, Steep Learning Curve as Chief in War (28/08/2010) Obama to Speak of Kept Promises in Address on Ending Combat Mission in Iraq (31/08/2010) I LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com APPENDIX Quan Đoi Nhan Dan Headlines Giờ “G” tai họa đến(20/3/2003) Mở chiến dịch “Cú sốc kinh hoàng” Mỹ ném 1.500 bom, tên lửa xuống I-rắc (23/3/2003) Trong trận chiến đẫm máu, liên quân Mỹ-Anh chiếm sân bay quốc tế thủ đô Bát-đa (5/4/2003) Đã bắt đầu trận tử thành Bát-đa? (8/4/2003) Rô-bớt Ghết, người vừa bổ nhiệm làm Bộ trưởng Quốc phịng Mỹ: Mỹ khơng thể thắng chiến I-rắc(06/12/2006) Lính Mỹ I-rắc Cơ-t tự sát ngày tăng (20/12/2006) Tình I-rắc khó khăn(24/12/2006) Kết cục bi thảm (29/12/2006) Nhiều nước phản đối việc hành ông Xát-đam Hút-xen (31/12/2006) Tháng đẫm máu I-rắc vòng hai năm (01/08/2010) Hy vọng nghi ngờ (04/08/2010) Chiến lược An ninh quốc gia Mỹ- có mới? (12/08/2010) Tia hy vọng cho hịa bình Trung Đơng (21/08/2010) Hậu họa chủ thuyết sai lầm(30/08/2010) Hỗn loạn bất lực ( 30/08/2010) Bình minh chưa ló rạng (31/08/2010) II LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com ... beginning time of an event, 26 LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com normally a military attack However, the adjective “tai h? ?a? ??‟ that implies something as the causes of suffering... LUAN VAN CHAT LUONG download : add luanvanchat@agmail.com 3.3.2 Informal Reasoning The characteristic point of informal reasoning competence is to reason It means that the readers take the information... “cooperative principles” However, as a matter of fact, in the real communication, conversational maxims are not always observed Grice (1975) made a distinction between “quietly” violating a maxim and