Rationale of the Study
Along with the development of the human society, language has evolved to satisfy human needs An important move in linguistics in recent years has introduced a new model and method of analysis of language known as Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), a new branch of Discourse Analysis (DA) Different from Discourse Analysis in general, CDA views language as a social practice – language is a part of society, language is a social process, and language is a socially conditioned process (Norman Fairclough, 1989) This is a linguistic approach widely applied for the analysis of political discourse In politics, CDA is often applied to explore and discover power and ideology hidden in the political discourse held by the authority This inspired me to choose Norman Faircoulgh’s as the theoretical framework for my MA thesis
Furthermore, I myself find CDA really useful and interesting as it provides us an analytic tool to illustrate and clarify CDA concepts, along with uncovering the speaker’s power and ideology For those reasons, I have decided to choose CDA as the field of my study and take “An analysis of President Barack Obama’s speech at President Nelson Mandela’s memorial, from critical discourse analysis perspectives” as a text for my thesis, using Norman Fairclough’s viewpoints as a theoretical framework.
Objectives of the Study
Analyzing the grammatical and lexical features, and the structures of the discourse
Analyzing Nelson Mandela's values presented in the discourse, and the purpose of the author making this speech through grammatical and lexical items, and the structures of the discourse
With the above objectives, the study deals with the following research questions:
What are Nelson Mandela's values presented in the discourse?
How are these values realized in terms of lexical and grammatical features, and structure of the discourse?
Scope of the Study
The study takes the written text of the speech at Nelson Mandela’s memorial by the incumbent president of the USA, Barack Obama It is the speech Barrack Obama delivered in Prague on Tuesday, December 10, 2013, paying tribute to Mandela’s life, and calling on the world to remember him by continuing to fight injustice, on the occasion of Mandela’s memorial at the First National Bank Stadium (FNB Stadium), South Africa
In this study, I focus only on relevant salient features Since this research is pure linguistic, I have no intention of giving an in-depth research into political science
Nevertheless, social-political context is presumed to result in the realization and representation of power and ideology of the speaker.
Method of the Study
The methodology in this paper follows the view of the most outstanding theoreticians in this approach (Fairclough1989, 1992, 1995, 2001, 2002; van Dijk1993, 1997, 1998, 1980, 2000) Methods of description and analysis are applied to investigate the realization and representation of power and ideology of the discourse Although several approaches to CDA have been chosen and analyzed, the one by Norman Fairclough is prior as it supplies most fundamental knowledge in the CDA.
Structure of the Study
The study consists of three main parts Firstly, the Introduction part explains the rationale, aims, scopes and methods of the research The next part is Theoretical Background, which sets a theoretical and suppositional orientation for the study A detailed Analysis will follow this with a thorough look into description, interpretation and explanation stage And the two parts ending this study are Conclusion and References
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Political Discourse and Speech
We may come across two interpretations of a discourse A broader one and a narrower one The former, as called by Teun A van Dijk, is a communicative event, which “involves a number of social actors in a specific setting (time, place, circumstances) and based on other context features”, and the latter is “the verbal dimension of the spoken or written communicative act of a communication event”
(Teun A van Dijk, 1998: 194), basically a talk or text In Fairclough’s view, it is “the whole process of social interaction of which a text is just a part” (Fairclough, 2001:
24) So the communicative event is equally important to the product of it
Teun A van Dijk defines political discourse as “the text and talk of professional politicians or political institutions, such as presidents and prime ministers and other members of government, parliament or political parties, both at the local, national and international levels”, and forms of which “have political functions and implications”
(1997) Whether or not a discourse is political is decided by the context- the event in which the discourse presentation takes place Hence, the study of a discourse cannot be only dependent on the written text or talk itself, but is based on the context for investigating its inside ideological meanings as well
Many linguists suggest political discourse be seen as a form of political action In his opinion, Barber supposes “political talk is not talk about the world; it is talk that makes and remakes the world.” (Barber, 1984: 177) Andrey G Kirillov, a lecturer at Samara State Teacher Training University says “As politics is action in its essence, political language or political discourse can be treated as a purposeful social communicative act in the sphere of politics “(2003).Teun A van Dijk accepts that it is a constitutive part of the political process of e.g governing, legislating, election campaigns, party propaganda, and so on.” (1997: 21)
The most familiar types of political discourse involve speech Speech is a written type of political discourse which is done by one representative of a particular political party One speaker talks about a topic in front of a number of audiences Although it is a text spoken aloud by someone, it lacks the features of spoken discourse Clearly, speech is characterized by formal monolog form and there is no oral communicative interaction between the speaker and the audience The speaker expresses his/her ideas, opinions and attitudes with no hope to receive response from the audience, particularly then The speaker plays the role as the speaker only, and the audience plays the role as the hearers, not the listener- the fundamental characteristics of spoken language In political speeches, there is no direct interaction between the sender and the receiver of the information
Most of the speeches, with specifically chosen lexicology and syntactic structures as well, have the main characteristics of being formal, impersonal and polite (Jana Langrová, 2010: 11) For the first one, speeches are one type of formal documents such as official reports or academic writing Their linguistic features to be detected are complex sentences, explicit clause and sentence linkers, subordination, non-finite and verbless clauses, subjunctive mood, impersonal constructions, uncontracted forms, generic pronoun one, polysyllabic, classical vocabulary (Dontcheva- Navratilova 52-53, cited by Jana Langrová ) The second one can be exemplified by the fact that almost all speeches avoid too personal reference, which is signaled by the lack of first person singular Instead, the use of formal subjects, collective nouns, abstract noun subjects and passive voice are promoted (Dontcheva-Navratilova 63, cited by Jana Langrová) The last one may be detected by the form of address, the social communication formulae, the use of indirect speech acts, the formula please, and the use of slang This is not easy to do, since whether a used language is polite or not depends on the knowledge of both linguistic and socio-cultural aspects
The general purposes of speeches are to orientate the audience towards the future and persuade them to believe in and act as the speaker’s will According to Dedaić, the purpose of political speeches is “primarily persuasion rather than information or entertainment” (Dedaić 2006: 700, cited by Lotte Skjứttgaard Sứrensen in Obama‟s
New Best Speech in Tucson”) Moreover, a speech should not only get people to listen to and accept what is said, but as described by Joe Garecht, should have “an ability to stir a crowd’s emotions through the spoken word.” as well.
Critical Discourse Analysis
Norman Fairclough in his book Critical Discourse Analysis (1997) prefers discourse analysis to be considered as a research tactics rather than a model of analysis CDA, in his view points, is an approach that tends to investigate the relationships between discursive practices and the social structures It is also interpretative and explanatory that oftentimes is historical in the form of social action
When referring to CDA, three stages are taken into consideration Firstly, the descriptive stage examines the basic formal properties of the discourse The following stage, interpretation views the discourse as a result of process of production and also as a resource in the act of interpretation And lastly, the explanation stage, mostly crucial, attempts to find the relationships between interaction and social context In Fairclough’s Language and Power (1989), a peculiar approach to CDA is stated, focusing on the –What of the description toward the –How and – Why of the interpretation and explanation
1.2.3 CDA as the main approach for this study
There are several reasons why Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is often chosen as the main approach to political discourse Firstly, the central objective of discourse analysis is “to perceive language use as social practice “as Juraj Horváth asserts
Social, cultural and psychological frameworks are reflected in language, and language cannot be separated from them Horvath says that CDA” studies the connections among textual structures and takes social context into account and explores the links between textual structures and their function in interaction within the society” Secondly, there is a close and dependent connection between the interpretation and the listener/the reader The interpretation emerges from the listener/reader‘s understanding of the text which is affected by listener’s experience of the world
My analysis is dependent on Norman Fairclough's assumptions in CDA, claiming that "ideologies reside in texts" and that "texts are open to diverse interpretations"
Ideology
There are a variety of definitions of ideology by a number of linguists It is stated in Fairclough (2001: 77) that ideology is any social policy which is in part or whole derived from social theory in a conscious way” and refers to the ““ideas which arise from a given set of material interests”
In Van Dijk’s viewpoint (2000: 87), there is “the basis of the social representations” shared by members of a group which gives “a mental framework of beliefs about society and the cognitive and social functions of such a framework for groups”
(1998: 9) Ideology as a system of beliefs can be expressed in “symbols, rituals, discourse and other social and cultural practices” (1998: 26)
Although ideology can be expressed both in the form and content of discourse, ideological meaning can only be reproduced through the interpretation and explanation of text
When individuals or groups in society truly believe that their ideology can give the right answer to challenges and problems, they take for granted that it enables them to achieve their goals Since they have access to various types of discourse, they can control the creation and content of discourse, so as to persuade and control public opinion to their beliefs Language, therefore, proves to be very important in persuading and manipulating and one of the most important means of domination and control
Van Dijk (1998: 244) defines persuasion as a process in which listeners change their opinions under the influence of some discourse Once the listeners’ opinions have changed, the speaker can influence their subsequent activities and participation in society (2003: 355)
According to American Journal of Sociology, "values may be seen as absolutes, as inherent in objects, as present within man, and as identical with his behavior" (Vol
62, No 3) In sociology, values are culturally defined standards to judge desirability, goodness, and beauty Hence, values are related to human actions and behavior, and are defined by all of the things human do More broadly, they serve as guidelines for social living as well as public policies.
RESEARCH METHOD
Collecting data
The data are firstly collected from the speech by President Barack Obama at President Nelson Mandela’s memorial by counting and classifying words, phrases, clauses and sentences into categories Then they are taken from other references as well, such as other previous speeches and statements by different authors I have tried to find the answers to the following questions:
What are the grammatical and lexical items used in the text?
Is the vocabulary formal or informal?
What is special about vocabulary usage?
How many clauses/ sentences are there in the text?
What are the types of the clauses/ sentences?
What type of mode/ Is active or passive voice is prominent?
Which pronouns/nouns are commonly used?
When data have been collected and classified, they are put into the next step.
Analyzing data
In the first stage, description, the formal properties of the text (vocabulary, grammar and value of the discourse) are analyzed in order to illustrate political views of the US President about President Mandela, thanks to which the main stream America is revealed For lexical features, experiential, relational, expressive values are thoroughly investigated via analyzing vocabulary As a result, the image and values of President Nelson Mandela are illustrated What is more, through studying the repeated words and phrases, the audiences and participants of the speech are examined so as to clarify the objectives of the author giving this speech And I also take formal vocabulary and classification schemes into account so that the powerfulness and persuasiveness of the speech is proved For grammatical features, the study analyzes the applied pronouns, active and passive voice, mode of the sentences and modality These help to reveal the speaker’s attitude, opinion and the connective values which provide the text with cohesion and coherence In addition, transitivity and thematic structures are examined so that the power and ideology of the speaker are clarified macro-structurally
In the interpretation stage, context is considered as the main factor for interpretation
Field, mode, and tenor - three aspects of the context, also the determining factors for the linguistic features of the text are discussed as well Besides, the discourse is interpreted with regard to situational context and intertextual context so as to realize the relationship between text and interaction – with seeing the text as a product of a process of production, and as a resource in the process of interpretation
In the last stage, explanation, the Discourse Process and Social Practice in the Discourse are taken as the main explanations for study The aim of this stage is to analyze the relationship between interaction and social context – with the social determination of the processes of production and interpretation, and their social effects’ (Fairclough, 2001) in order to discover how they are determined by social structures and what productive effects discourse can have on those structures.
AN ANALYSIS OF BARACK OBAMA’S SPEECH AT NELSON MANDELA’S
Context of the chosen text
3.1.1 Nelson Mandela, life and death
The speech was given on December 10 th , 2014 at the Memorial of Nelson Mandela
Mandela’s real name is Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (18 July 1918 – 5 December
2013) His father died when Nelson was nine and he was the first person in his family to attend school Mandela began his political career early in his young adulthood
In 1962, Mandela was arrested, and after 27 years of being imprisoned, he was released in 1989 In 1992, Mandela was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work to end apartheid Two years later, he was elected president of South Africa
When his administration ends in 1999, Nelson Mandela was dedicated to ending global poverty and helping to resolve wars and conflicts throughout Africa
In June 2004, at the age of 85, Mandela announced that he was "retiring from retirement" and began to suffer from illness He died at his home in Johannesburg on
5 December 2013 Despite his failing health, Mandela still participated in some international affairs
After suffering from a prolonged respiratory infection, Mandela died on 5 December
2013 at the age of 95, A national mourning period of ten days was announced on 6 December 2013, with the memorial, the main event held at the FNB Stadium in Johannesburg on 10 December 2013 A state funeral was held on 15 December 2013 in Qunu, South Africa President Barack Obama is one ofapproximately 90 representatives of foreign states travelling to South Africa to attend the memorial event
His leading life is rehearsed in his autobiography Long Walk to Freedom Even the name of the autobiography expresses his purpose life: freedom His ideas are also pointed out clearly in Obama’s speech: “I’ve cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and [with] equal opportunities It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.”
In his life, Mandela was known as a great South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, politician, and philanthropist and served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999 He was South Africa's first black chief executive, and the first elected in a fully representative democratic election The focus of his government is on destroying the legacy of apartheid through tackling institutionalized racism, poverty and inequality, and fostering racial reconciliation and his life hope is to bring down the present oppressive government in his country and rebuild the country based on democracy, freedom, and above all, equality His life provides an inspiration to all who are oppressed and deprived as well as to all who are opposed to oppression and deprivation.
Textual Description and Analysis
The analysis of text is a necessary process in discourse analysis in general and critical discourse analysis in general According to Fairclough (1989), there are three stages of CDA, in which description is the first one The aim of this stage is to investigate lexical and grammatical features such as vocabulary, verb tenses, sentence modes, mood, modality, transitivity process etc., basing on which some power relations and ideologies are conveyed In this part, qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis are employed, with the collection of data from the chosen speech and other CDA books and documents
Fairclough, in his book Language and Power (2001) claimed that formal features of texts have experiential, relational, expressive or connective value, or some combination of these I will take the vocabulary into consideration to encode these values The first one deals with contents and knowledge and beliefs The second one focuses on relations and social relationships enacted via the text The third one aims to concern subjects and social identities And since connective value is related to some grammatical aspects, this last one will be discussed in one sub-part of Grammatical Analysis
Experiential and expressive values are expressed in the vocabulary features of the text
The Image and Values of Nelson Mandela
With chosen vocabulary, the image of Nelson Mandela is built up with an attitude of respect and admiration throughout the speech Never in his administration has Barack Obama represented any person so appreciatively
In the first place, Nelson Mandela is described as a great liberator of the 20 th century At the very beginning of the speech, related words are employed to describe the values of Nelson Mandela
His struggle (line 6) His triumph (line 6) your dignity (line 7) your freedom (line 7) your democracy (line 8)
It is shown that Nelson Mandela is a great person of freedom, a person who has spent all his life fighting for the freedom and democracy, who has left influences on not only his nation, but also billions around the world
Also, in the rest of the speech, these types of relating and repetitive words including freedom, democracy,justice and phrases are assigned strategically
(line 12) moved a nation toward justice
(line 18, 19) he would give potent voice to the claims of the oppressed and the moral necessity of racial justice
(line 22) hold his country together (line 23, 24) preserve freedom for future generations
The speaker also quotes several of Mandela’s sayings, which clearly represent Mandela’s viewpoints and ideas, persuade his listeners and readers about the truth of his ideas about Mandela, and make the speech more convincing:
(line 44, 45) “a desire to fight the system that imprisoned my people”
(line 51-53) “I’ve cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and (with) equal opportunities”
In the second place, the image of Nelson Mandela is drawn out as a person of tolerance A person of self-acceptance:
(line 32) He could be not only admit to imperfection
(line 29, 30) By sharing with us his doubts and his fears
(line 32, 33) He could be so full of good humour and in his private life, he was not strong and outstanding as the way he is regarded a figure of the century,
(line 34, 35) He was not a bust made of marble; he was a man of flesh and blood- a son and a husband, a father and a friend
He learned from those he didn’t agree with, as well as learned the language and the customs of his oppressor (line 63)
Mandela taught us the power of action, but he also taught us the power of ideas, the importance of reason and arguments; the need to study not only those who you agree with, but also those who you don’t agree with (line 57, 58)
After he succeeded in bring about peace to his nation, Mandela believed that reconciliation is not a matter of ignoring a cruel past, but a means of confronting it with inclusion and generosity and truth(line 89, 90), and he decided to free not just the prisoner, but also the jailer
Then, throughout the speech, the prominent value of Mandela that is represented in the strategic language by Obama is non-violence By calling Mandela a liberator and using the word “ struggle” much more than “ fight”, Obama means that everything which is done in the great life of Mandela is for liberation, not war
(line 45, 46) He shared with millions of black and colored South Africans
(line 77, 78) his recognition that we are all bound together
(line 79) there is a oneness to humanity
(line 79, 80) we achieve ourselves by sharing ourselves with others, and caring for those around us
To sum up, with a not very long speech, President Obama can summarizes and reset the life and career of Nelson Mandela, basing on which his ideas about the deceased are expressed Also, this is an effective way to represent the ideas and characteristic attitude of American people, often called mainstream America; that is towards freedom, democracy, justice and equality
The speaker of the speech is President Barack Obama His full name is Barack Hussein Obama II, born on August 4, 1961, who won two elections and became the 44th and current President of the United States He is also the first African-American to hold this position The identity of the speaker is mentioned several times in the speech:
(line 95) It’s a question I ask myself, as a man and as a President
(line 126-130) Over 30 years ago, while still a student, I learned of Nelson
Mandela and the struggles taking place in this beautiful land, and it stirred something in me It woke me up to my responsibilities to others and to myself, and it set me on an improbable journey that finds me here today And while I will always fall short of Madiba’s example, he makes me want to be a better man
The speech was given at the memorial on 10 December 2013 of President Nelson Mandela, the former president of South Africa and one of the greatest leaders of our time So, the target hearers are, first, the people of South Africa, then people all over the world There seems to be something in common between the two persons Both of them are black and their objective for life is to fight for democracy
At the very beginning of the speech, the audience that Obama would like to address is Mandela’s family The next audiences are the current president of South Africa, the members of government, the distinguished guests, and the people of South Africa
Calling Mandela’s wife with her real name, as well as employing a nickname Mandiba for Mandela later through the text, Obama creates an intimate and warm atmosphere for the speech
Interpretation of the relationship between the productive and interpretative
As stated by Fairclough, there are four main dimensions of situational context including the answers to four questions: what’s going on, who’s involved, what relations are at issue, and what’s the role of language
In terms of “what’s going on”, the activity here is a convincing political speech which is done to the audience present at the memorial as well as the audience around the world who pays attention to the hot news of Nelson Mandela’s passing The central topic of the speech is the eulogy of the deceased person, thanks to which multi-dimensional purposes may be achieved First, the speech was to restate Mandela’s life and career as a liberator and leader Next, with this speech, Barack Obama, on behalf of his nation, would like to express his own respect and mournfulness to Nelson Mandela Then, it was made to confirm that Obama and his government’s ideology and actions are similar to Nelson Mandela, who has gained world-wide respect and support And the last primary purpose of the speech was to seek for the approval and support of pacifists all over the world of his government’s future actions
With regard to “who’s involved”, as can be seen obviously, the subjects of the discourse here are the speaker and the audience In this dimension, the social identities of the participants are clearly shown The speaker with his highest position as the President is on behalf of all the Americans He has a law degree He is a writer, the senator of Illinois, the Democratic Party presidential candidate and an identity of a normal person which often shows the empathy between the audience and him He was elected as the President for 2 presidential terms, the first black president of America and a member of Democracy Party The audience involves people listening to the speech or reading the text, whether or not present at the memorial They may belong to diverse political or social backgrounds and their identities are decided by their education, profession, class, age or race Since in a typical political speech, at least orally, there is not interaction between the speaker and the audience, the speaker indirectly imposes his ideology on the hearers/or listeners Also due to this, it may be difficult for the audience to interpret what the speaker implies in his discourse
There is a close connection between “what relations are at issue” and “who’s involved” The speaker has no chance to interact to his audience directly, and as a result, the interpretation made by the audience may be distinguished from one to another Because the audiences belong to different races, religions, countries and have different social orders and different ideological positions, they may have a variety of interpretation of the situational context in which they are
In terms of “the role of language”, we are concerned about language as an instrumental way of giving information Besides, it is an effective tool to convey the speaker’s ideology and exert power In the speech, because Mandela is a worldwide well-known character and supported by almost all people, Obama’s grief and admiration to Mandela help to show their humane strength and receive cooperation and approval of the world
The concept of intertextual context requires us to view a discourse from historical perspectives The discourse must belong to a historical series and the task of interpreting the intertextual context refers to find out what historical series the discourse belongs to, in the view of Fairclough (2001)
In their life, the speaker, Barack Obama and the deceased person, Nelson Mandela met just once in Washington in 2005 But since Obama was a student in California campus, he has been inspired by Nelson Mandela, the leader of anti- apartheid movements and his struggles for liberation:
Over 30 years ago, while still a student, I learned of Nelson Mandela and the struggles taking place in this beautiful land, and it stirred something in me (line 126-
As a result, Obama participated in a protest against apartheid at that time And later, the inspiration provided by the former president of South Africa for Obama still remains in his political career from inner- city Chicago to the White House
Regarding the speech, it is certainly the first one that Obama made to eulogize a person with all of his admiration and respect “it is a singular honor to be with you today, to celebrate a life like no other.””Like no other” is a sincere comment full of esteem by the president of the most powerful nation in the world, as Obama said when he led world tributes to Mandela “"And like so many around the globe, I cannot fully imagine my own life without the example that Nelson Mandela set And so long as I live, I will do what I can to learn from him” The former president George Bush also calls the deceased “one of the great forces for freedom and equality of our time”
And Bill Clinton regards Nelson Mandela as “a man of uncommon grace and compassion, for whom abandoning bitterness and and embracing adversaries was not just a political strategy but a way of life” The appreciation of Nelson Mandela is a demonstration of one feature of American ground: heroism
Also, the speech shows another aspect of American ground: liberty and patriotism
This may be one of the speeches concerning the same issues of actions and motivations In many of his speeches, justice, liberation and democracy are common topics appearing repetitively In one speech on health care, he said “We proved that we are still a people capable of doing big things and tackling our biggest challenges
“ This is similar to the announcements in this one “South Africa shows we can change, that we can choose a world defined not by our differences, but by our common hopes We can choose a world defined not by conflict, but by peace and justice and opportunity.” In another speech to the Congressional Black Caucus, Obama emphasized:
“With patient and firm determination, I am going to press on for jobs I'm going to press on for equality I'm going to press on for the sake of our children I'm going to press on for the sake of all those families who are struggling right now I don't have time to feel sorry for myself I don't have time to complain I am going to press on.”
This coincides with what he says here:
“so we, too, must act on behalf of justice We, too, must act on behalf of peace.”
“The questions we face today how to promote equality and justice; how to uphold freedom and human rights; how to end conflict and sectarian war “
Let’s turn back further to President George Bush’s administration In a speech titled
“Initial Ops in Afghanistan”, Bush claimed that “We will not waver; we will not tire; we will not falter, and we will not fail Peace and Freedom will prevail.” That is the confirmation about the objectives in the future and about the success of people on the way to peace and freedom
Presuppositions also play an important role in interpreting context If presuppositions are determined appropriately, the speakers’ ideology may successfully be imposed on the audience At the beginning of the speech, the speaker said “it is a singular honor to be with you today, to celebrate a life like no other “ This presupposes that there exists a life like no other, namely the great life of Nelson Mandela This is an interesting way of starting a topic, causing people to predict why the life is like no other, how it is like no other, and what is its meaning and value
Explanation of the Discourse Process and Social Practice in the Discourse
As Fairclough and Wodak (1997: 271-80) defined, ‘discourse is a form of social action’ In the stage of explanation, discourse is viewed as a part of social process and social practice
In his another book, Fairclough claims ‘explanation is concerned with the relationship between interaction and social context – with the social determination of the processes of production and interpretation, and their social effects’ (Fairclough 1989: 26), which sustain social structures or change them In other words, this indispensable stage demonstrates how a discourse is determined by social structures, how political phenomenon manifest itself in discourse and what productive effects the discourse has on those structures
The discourse of Obama’s speech in this part, will be investigated as an integral part of social processes at the institutional and societal levels, in which, how it is ideologically determined will be revealed
With regards to the institutional level, there is a power relationship between the speaker and the audience Through the speech, Obama hopes to find a way to impose his power on his audience, by employing creative language, spreading his positive beliefs about future, and persuading the audience to believe in Mandela’s ideals as well as his This is meaningful that a discourse can influence and even trigger some changes in society in that way From the speech, it can be seen clearly that it can help reinforce the audience’s trust in Obama’s administration and call for approval and support from the world
In terms of societal level, the relationship between discourse and social structures will be explored This is a mutual relationship Whereas social structures determine discourse, it has effects on social structures and plays an important part in social continuity or social change The social relationship in this discourse is represented by the one between the speaker, President Obama and his audience, people in South Africa, in America and around the world
Recapitulation
In the very beginning part, the rationale, aims, scopes and methods have been revealed Then, in the following parts, the speech has been investigated with regards to microstructure including vocabulary, grammatical features, transitivity, thematization and macrostructure so as to reveal the power and ideology in the discourse In addition, the relationship between the productive and interpretative processes as well as the one between discourse and social process, social practice has already been looked through
In this ending part, I would like to summarize the findings during the study, which are clarified in the following table:
Table 12: Summary of the Findings
What is found? What is embedded?
- The speaker’s ideas about the Nelson Mandela, his life and his career
- The solemnity and the mournfulness expressed in the speech
Personal pronoun - A sense of respect and solidarity
- The wide use of active voice, emphasizing the subjects, mostly the main character of the speech
-Focus on giving information about
- The common use of modal auxiliaries
- Focus on evaluation of person and possibility of actions
- The use of reiteration on creating coherence of the text
A number of marked theme High percentage of unmarked theme Domination of topical theme
- Focus on the manner and time of actions
- The constant topic of the text being the eulogy of Mandela’s life and career
Background Problems Solutions Results Reasons and determination
- An overall communicative purpose is to point out the terrorists’ crimes, justify the use of the US armed forces for their security, and appeal support and approval from nations worldwide
- The central information is the memorial of Nelson Mandela
- The speaker is on behalf of the entire American and the audience from all over the world
What’s the role of language?
- Language is used to give information and convey the speaker’s ideology
Which historical series does the text belong to?
- Many presuppositions that the speaker’s ideology follows
- Speech acts are ways to express both power and ideology
Power relationship between the speaker and the audience
- The speech can strengthen the American’s trust in Obama’s administration
Relationship between discourse and social structures
- The discourse helps indicate the sense of respect and solidarity
Conclusion
This analysis is based on three stages suggested by Fairclough (2001): Description, Interpretation and Explanation The purpose of this study is to explore the power relationship, the ideology hidden in the discourse, and the social relations involved in it
In the speech, the values of Nelson Mandela are successfully demonstrated as a person of freedom, non-violence and tolerance, which is an effective way to represent the ideas and characteristic attitude of American people These values are clearly shown in the lexical and grammatical features strategically chosen in the speech Thanks to this, the author can convey ideology and exert power on his audience.
Limitations
The study may inevitably have some limitations In the first place, some of the research findings may not be enough and fully accurate In the second place, not all the ideologies of the author may be revealed as clearly as I expected before doing this research.
Recommendations and implications
This study can be a guide for similar researches in the future, especially on Obama’s political speeches, to investigate the power and ideology of the author To avoid and overcome the above mentioned limitations, researchers should divide their research questions into smaller ones, and focus on each aspects of the text instead of covering all of it
This study also has several implications for language teaching and learning Firstly, teachers can have influence on students as a part of society with their teaching styles and attitude to their career and their students The personality and knowledge of students will become good or bad is dependent on education in general and partly on teachers Hence, if teachers have the ability of motivating and encouraging students, they will leave the good effects on the development of students in the future
Secondly, teachers should change their view on their role in teaching and learning process In the past, teachers are widely considered as the most powerful figure in the classroom But the attitude has gradually changed Instead of being the information giver, teachers are considered the guider and facilitator and have less power It is advisable that they should not impose much power on their students in order to enhance teaching and learning process
1 Hoàng Văn Vân (2006), Introducing discourse analysis, NXB Giáodục, HàNội
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A TRANSCRIPT OF BARACK OBAMA’S SPEECH
Thank you Thank you so much Thank you To GraỗaMachel and the Mandela
1 family; to President Zuma and members of the government; to heads of states and
2 government, past and present; distinguished guests it is a singular honor to be
3 with you today, to celebrate a life like no other To the people of South Africa
4 people of every race and walk of life the world thanks you for sharing Nelson
Mandela with us His struggle was your struggle His triumph was your triumph
Your dignity and your hope found expression in his life And your freedom, your
7 democracy is his cherished legacy
It is hard to eulogize any man to capture in words not just the facts and the dates
9 that make a life, but the essential truth of a person their private joys and sorrows;
10 the quiet moments and unique qualities that illuminate someone’s soul How much
11 harder to do so for a giant of history, who moved a nation toward justice, and in the
12 process moved billions around the world
Born during World War I, far from the corridors of power, a boy raised herding
14 cattle and tutored by the elders of his Thembu tribe, Madiba would emerge as the
15 last great liberator of the 20th century Like Gandhi, he would lead a resistance
16 movement a movement that at its start had little prospect for success Like Dr
King, he would give potent voice to the claims of the oppressed and the moral
18 necessity of racial justice He would endure a brutal imprisonment that began in the
19 time of Kennedy and Khrushchev, and reached the final days of the Cold War
Emerging from prison, without the force of arms, he would like Abraham Lincoln
hold his country together when it threatened to break apart And like America’s
Founding Fathers, he would erect a constitutional order to preserve freedom for
23 future generations a commitment to democracy and rule of law ratified not only
24 by his election, but by his willingness to step down from power after only one term
Given the sweep of his life, the scope of his accomplishments, the adoration that he
26 so rightly earned, it’s tempting I think to remember Nelson Mandela as an icon,
27 smiling and serene, detached from the tawdry affairs of lesser men But Madiba
28 himself strongly resisted such a lifeless portrait Instead, Madiba insisted on sharing
29 with us his doubts and his fears; his miscalculations along with his victories “I am
30 not a saint,” he said, “unless you think of a saint as a sinner who keeps on trying.”
It was precisely because he could admit to imperfection because he could be so
32 full of good humor, even mischief, despite the heavy burdens he carried that we
33 loved him so He was not a bust made of marble; he was a man of flesh and blood
34 a son and a husband, a father and a friend And that’s why we learned so much from
35 him, and that’s why we can learn from him still For nothing he achieved was
36 inevitable In the arc of his life, we see a man who earned his place in history
37 through struggle and shrewdness, and persistence and faith He tells us what is
38 possible not just in the pages of history books, but in our own lives as well
Mandela showed us the power of action; of taking risks on behalf of our ideals
Perhaps Madiba was right that he inherited, “a proud rebelliousness, a stubborn
41 sense of fairness” from his father And we know he shared with millions of black
42 and colored South Africans the anger born of, “a thousand slights, a thousand
43 indignities, a thousand unremembered moments…a desire to fight the system that
44 imprisoned my people,” he said
But like other early giants of the ANC the Sisulus and Tambos Madiba
46 disciplined his anger and channeled his desire to fight into organization, and
47 platforms, and strategies for action, so men and women could stand up for their
God-given dignity Moreover, he accepted the consequences of his actions, knowing
49 that standing up to powerful interests and injustice carries a price “I have fought
50 against white domination and I have fought against black domination I’ve
51 cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live
52 together in harmony and [with] equal opportunities It is an ideal which I hope to
53 live for and to achieve But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to
Mandela taught us the power of action, but he also taught us the power of ideas; the
56 importance of reason and arguments; the need to study not only those who you
57 agree with, but also those who you don’t agree with He understood that ideas
58 cannot be contained by prison walls, or extinguished by a sniper’s bullet He turned
59 his trial into an indictment of apartheid because of his eloquence and his passion,
60 but also because of his training as an advocate He used decades in prison to
61 sharpen his arguments, but also to spread his thirst for knowledge to others in the
62 movement And he learned the language and the customs of his oppressor so that
63 one day he might better convey to them how their own freedom depends upon his
Mandela demonstrated that action and ideas are not enough No matter how right,
65 they must be chiseled into law and institutions He was practical, testing his beliefs
66 against the hard surface of circumstance and history On core principles he was
67 unyielding, which is why he could rebuff offers of unconditional release, reminding
68 the Apartheid regime that “prisoners cannot enter into contracts.”
But as he showed in painstaking negotiations to transfer power and draft new laws,
70 he was not afraid to compromise for the sake of a larger goal And because he was
71 not only a leader of a movement but a skillful politician, the Constitution that
72 emerged was worthy of this multiracial democracy, true to his vision of laws that
73 protect minority as well as majority rights, and the precious freedoms of every
And finally, Mandela understood the ties that bind the human spirit There is a word
76 in South Africa Ubuntu a word that captures Mandela’s greatest gift: his
77 recognition that we are all bound together in ways that are invisible to the eye; that
78 there is a oneness to humanity; that we achieve ourselves by sharing ourselves with
79 others, and caring for those around us
We can never know how much of this sense was innate in him, or how much was
81 shaped in a dark and solitary cell But we remember the gestures, large and small
82 introducing his jailers as honored guests at his inauguration; taking a pitch in a
Springbok uniform; turning his family’s heartbreak into a call to confront
HIV/AIDS that revealed the depth of his empathy and his understanding He not
85 only embodied Ubuntu, he taught millions to find that truth within themselves
It took a man like Madiba to free not just the prisoner, but the jailer as well to show
87 that you must trust others so that they may trust you; to teach that reconciliation is
88 not a matter of ignoring a cruel past, but a means of confronting it with inclusion
89 and generosity and truth He changed laws, but he also changed hearts
For the people of South Africa, for those he inspired around the globe, Madiba’s
91 passing is rightly a time of mourning, and a time to celebrate a heroic life But I
92 believe it should also prompt in each of us a time for self-reflection With honesty,
93 regardless of our station or our circumstance, we must ask: How well have I applied
94 his lessons in my own life? It’s a question I ask myself, as a man and as a President
We know that, like South Africa, the United States had to overcome centuries of
96 racial subjugation As was true here, it took sacrifice the sacrifice of countless
97 people, known and unknown, to see the dawn of a new day Michelle and I are
98 beneficiaries of that struggle But in America, and in South Africa, and in countries
99 all around the globe, we cannot allow our progress to cloud the fact that our work is
The struggles that follow the victory of formal equality or universal franchise may
102 not be as filled with drama and moral clarity as those that came before, but they are
103 no less important For around the world today, we still see children suffering from
104 hunger and disease We still see run-down schools We still see young people
105 without prospects for the future Around the world today, men and women are still
106 imprisoned for their political beliefs, and are still persecuted for what they look like,
107 and how they worship, and who they love That is happening today
And so we, too, must act on behalf of justice We, too, must act on behalf of peace
There are too many people who happily embrace Madiba’s legacy of racial
110 reconciliation, but passionately resist even modest reforms that would challenge
111 chronic poverty and growing inequality There are too many leaders who claim
112 solidarity with Madiba’s struggle for freedom, but do not tolerate dissent from their
113 own people And there are too many of us on the sidelines, comfortable in
114 complacency or cynicism when our voices must be heard
The questions we face today how to promote equality and justice; how to uphold
116 freedom and human rights; how to end conflict and sectarian war these things do
117 not have easy answers But there were no easy answers in front of that child born in
World War I Nelson Mandela remind us that it always seems impossible until it is
119 done South Africa shows that is true South Africa shows we can change, that we
120 can choose a world defined not by our differences, but by our common hopes We
121 can choose a world defined not by conflict, but by peace and justice and
We will never see the likes of Nelson Mandela again But let me say to the young
124 people of Africa and the young people around the world you, too, can make his
125 life’s work your owfn Over 30 years ago, while still a student, I learned of Nelson
Mandela and the struggles taking place in this beautiful land, and it stirred
127 something in me It woke me up to my responsibilities to others and to myself, and
128 it set me on an improbable journey that finds me here today And while I will
129 always fall short of Madiba’s example, he makes me want to be a better man He
130 speaks to what’s best inside us
After this great liberator is laid to rest, and when we have returned to our cities and
132 villages and rejoined our daily routines, let us search for his strength Let us search
133 for his largeness of spirit somewhere inside of ourselves And when the night grows
134 dark, when injustice weighs heavy on our hearts, when our best-laid plans seem
135 beyond our reach, let us think of Madiba and the words that brought him comfort
136 within the four walls of his cell: “It matters not how strait the gate, how charged
137 with punishments the scroll, I am the master of my fate: I am the captain of my
What a magnificent soul it was We will miss him deeply May God bless the
140 memory of Nelson Mandela May God bless the people of South Africa.
THEMATIC ANALYSIS IN THE TEXT
Interpersonal Theme Topical Theme Markedness
4 To GraỗaMachel and the Mandela family; to President
Zuma and members of the government; to heads of states and government, past and present; distinguished guests unmarked
5 To the people of South Africa people of every race and walk of life the world unmarked
8 Your dignity and your hope unmarked
9 And your freedom, your democracy unmarked
11 that (the essential truth of a person their private joys and sorrows; the quiet moments and unique qualities) unmarked
13 Born during World War I marked
21 And Given the sweep of life marked
43 In the arc of his life marked
53 But like other early giants of the ANC marked
54 so men and women unmarked
57 standing up to powerful interests and injustice unmarked
79 No matter how right marked
90 that (his vision of laws) unmarked
100 how much of this sense unmarked
109 to teach that reconciliation unmarked
116 With honesty, regardless of our station or our circumstance, marked
125 But in America, and in South Africa, and in countries all around the globe marked
131 For For around the world today marked
134 Around the world today marked
135 and men and women marked
140 And so too we unmarked
144 but too many people unmarked
148 but too many leaders unmarked
176 After this great liberator unmarked
180 And when the night unmarked
182 when our best-laid plans unmarked
184 Madiba and the words unmarked