P1 FCG/SPH P2 FCG/SPH QC FCG/SPH T1 SPH FM BLBK308/Swatton August 14, 2010 12 54 Printer Name Yet to Come P1 FCG/SPH P2 FCG/SPH QC FCG/SPH T1 SPH FM BLBK308/Swatton August 14, 2010 12 54 Printer Name[.]
P1: FCG/SPH P2: FCG/SPH QC: FCG/SPH T1: SPH FM BLBK308/Swatton August 14, 2010 12:54 Printer Name: Yet to Come P1: FCG/SPH P2: FCG/SPH QC: FCG/SPH T1: SPH FM BLBK308/Swatton August 14, 2010 12:54 Printer Name: Yet to Come The Principles of Flight for Pilots P1: FCG/SPH P2: FCG/SPH QC: FCG/SPH T1: SPH FM BLBK308/Swatton August 14, 2010 12:54 Printer Name: Yet to Come Aerospace Series List Cooperative Path Planning of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Principles of Flight for Pilots Air Travel and Health: A Systems Perspective Design and Analysis of Composite Structures: With Applications to Aerospace Structures Unmanned Aircraft Systems: UAVS Design, Development and Deployment Introduction to Antenna Placement & Installations Principles of Flight Simulation Aircraft Fuel Systems The Global Airline Industry Computational Modelling and Simulation of Aircraft and the Environment: Volume – Platform Kinematics and Synthetic Environment Handbook of Space Technology Aircraft Performance Theory and Practice for Pilots Surrogate Modelling in Engineering Design: A Practical Guide Aircraft Systems, 3rd Edition Introduction to Aircraft Aeroelasticity And Loads Stability and Control of Aircraft Systems Military Avionics Systems Design and Development of Aircraft Systems Aircraft Loading and Structural Layout Aircraft Display Systems Civil Avionics Systems Tsourdos et al November 2010 Swatton Seabridge et al Kassapoglou October 2010 September 2010 September 2010 Austin April 2010 Macnamara April 2010 Allerton Langton et al Belobaba Diston October 2009 May 2009 April 2009 April 2009 Ley, Wittmann Hallmann Swatton April 2009 August 2008 Forrester, Sobester, Keane August 2008 Moir & Seabridge Wright & Cooper March 2008 December 2007 Langton Moir & Seabridge Moir & Seabridge Howe Jukes Moir & Seabridge September 2006 February 2006 June 2004 May 2004 December 2003 December 2002 P1: FCG/SPH P2: FCG/SPH QC: FCG/SPH T1: SPH FM BLBK308/Swatton August 14, 2010 12:54 Printer Name: Yet to Come The Principles of Flight for Pilots P J Swatton A John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Publication P1: FCG/SPH P2: FCG/SPH QC: FCG/SPH T1: SPH FM BLBK308/Swatton August 14, 2010 12:54 Printer Name: Yet to Come This edition first published 2011 C 2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Registered offic John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Swatton, P J (Peter J.) The principles of flight for pilots / P J Swatton p cm Includes index ISBN 978-0-470-71073-9 (pbk.) Airplanes–Piloting Aerodynamics Flight I Title TL710.S774 2010 629.132–dc22 2010014529 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Print ISBN: 9780470710739 ePDF ISBN: 9780470710937 oBook ISBN: 9780470710944 Set in 9/11 Times by Aptara Inc., New Delhi, India P1: FCG/SPH P2: FCG/SPH QC: FCG/SPH T1: SPH FM BLBK308/Swatton August 14, 2010 17:17 Printer Name: Yet to Come Contents Series Preface Preface xxi xxiii Acknowledgements xxv List of Abbreviations xxvii Weight and Mass xxxi PART 1 THE PRELIMINARIES Basic Principles 1.1 The Atmosphere 1.2 The Composition of Air 1.2.1 The Measurement of Temperature 1.2.2 Air Density 1.3 The International Standard Atmosphere 1.3.1 ISA Deviation 1.3.2 JSA Deviation 1.3.3 Height and Altitude 1.3.4 Pressure Altitude 1.3.5 Density Altitude 1.4 The Physical Properties of Air 1.4.1 Fluid Pressure 1.4.2 Static Pressure 1.4.3 Dynamic Pressure 1.5 Newton’s Laws of Motion 1.5.1 Definitions 1.5.2 First Law 1.5.3 Second Law 1.5.4 Third Law 1.6 Constant-Acceleration Formulae 1.7 The Equation of Impulse 1.8 The Basic Gas Laws 1.8.1 Boyles Law 1.8.2 Charles’ Law 1.8.3 Pressure Law 1.8.4 The Ideal Gas Equation 1.9 The Conservation Laws 3 3 4 5 7 7 7 8 8 9 10 10 10 10 10 11 P1: FCG/SPH P2: FCG/SPH QC: FCG/SPH T1: SPH FM BLBK308/Swatton August 14, 2010 17:17 Printer Name: Yet to Come CONTENTS vi 1.10 Bernoulli’s Theorem 1.10.1 Viscosity 1.11 The Equation of Continuity 1.12 Reynolds Number 1.12.1 Critical Reynolds Number (Recrit ) 1.13 Units of Measurement Self-Assessment Exercise 11 11 12 12 13 13 15 Basic Aerodynamic Definitions 2.1 Aerofoil Profile 2.2 Aerofoil Attitude 2.3 Wing Shape 2.4 Wing Loading 2.5 Weight and Mass 2.5.1 The Newton 2.6 Airspeeds 2.6.1 Airspeed Indicator Reading (ASIR) 2.6.2 Indicated Airspeed (IAS) 2.6.3 Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) 2.6.4 Rectified Airspeed (RAS) 2.6.5 Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) 2.6.6 True Airspeed (TAS) 2.6.7 Mach Number 2.7 Speed Summary 2.8 The Effect of Altitude on Airspeeds 2.8.1 a Below the Tropopause 2.8.2 b Above the Tropopause Self-Assessment Exercise 19 19 20 21 23 24 24 24 24 25 25 25 25 25 26 26 27 27 27 29 PART 33 BASIC AERODYNAMICS Basic Control 3.1 Aeroplane Axes and Planes of Rotation 3.1.1 The Longitudinal or Roll Axis 3.1.2 The Lateral or Pitch Axis 3.1.3 The Normal or Yaw Axis 3.2 The Flight Controls 3.3 The Elevators 3.4 Pitch Control 3.4.1 Control Surface Area 3.4.1.1 Control Surface Angular Deflection 3.4.2 The Moment Arm 3.4.3 Angle of Attack 3.5 Alternative Pitch Controls 3.5.1 Variable Incidence Tailplane 3.5.2 The Stabilator 3.5.3 The Elevons 3.6 The Rudder 3.7 Yaw Control 3.7.1 Control-Surface Area 3.7.1.1 Control-Surface Deflection 35 35 35 35 35 35 37 37 38 38 38 38 39 39 40 40 40 41 41 41 P1: FCG/SPH P2: FCG/SPH QC: FCG/SPH T1: SPH FM BLBK308/Swatton August 14, 2010 17:17 Printer Name: Yet to Come CONTENTS 3.7.2 vii The Moment Arm 3.7.2.1 Engine-Induced Yaw 3.8 Asymmetric Engine Yawing Moment 3.8.1 Critical Power Unit 3.9 Asymmetric Rolling Moment 3.10 Minimum Control Speeds 3.10.0.1 For Take-off 3.10.0.2 For Landing 3.10.1 Vmc 3.10.2 Vmcg 3.10.2.1 The Effect of the Variables on Vmcg and Vmc 3.10.3 Vmcl 3.10.4 Vmcl(1out) 3.10.5 Vmcl-2 3.10.5.1 The Effect of the Variables on Vmcl 3.11 The Ailerons 3.12 Roll Control 3.12.1 The Flaperon 3.13 Wing Twist 3.14 Geometric Twist 3.15 Aerodynamic Twist 3.15.1 Twisterons 3.16 High-Speed Twist 3.16.1 Low-Speed Ailerons 3.16.2 High-Speed Ailerons 3.16.3 Roll Spoilers Self-Assessment Exercise 41 41 42 42 43 44 44 44 44 44 45 45 45 46 46 46 46 47 47 47 47 48 49 49 49 50 51 55 55 55 57 58 58 58 59 59 59 60 60 61 61 61 61 62 62 62 64 64 64 64 65 Lift Generation 4.1 Turbulent Flow 4.2 Streamline Flow 4.3 The Boundary Layer 4.4 The Laminar Boundary Layer 4.4.1 The Transition Point 4.5 The Turbulent Boundary Layer 4.5.1 Leading-Edge Separation 4.6 Boundary-Layer Control 4.6.1 Blowing 4.6.2 Suction 4.6.3 Vortex Generators 4.7 Two-Dimensional Flow 4.8 The Stagnation Point 4.8.1 Aerofoil Upper-Surface Airflow 4.8.2 Aerofoil Lower-Surface Airflow 4.9 Lift Production 4.9.1 Symmetrical Aerofoils 4.9.2 Cambered Aerofoils 4.9.2.1 a Negative Angles of Attack 4.9.2.2 b Small Positive Angles of Attack 4.9.2.3 c Large Positive Angles of Attack 4.10 The Centre of Pressure (CP) 4.11 Pitching Moments P1: FCG/SPH P2: FCG/SPH QC: FCG/SPH T1: SPH FM BLBK308/Swatton August 14, 2010 17:17 Printer Name: Yet to Come CONTENTS viii 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 The Aerodynamic Centre Three-Dimensional Flow Wing-Tip Vortices Wake Turbulence Spanwise Lift Distribution 4.16.1 The Effect of Wing Planform Self-Assessment Exercise 67 68 68 70 70 70 75 PART 79 LEVEL-FLIGHT AERODYNAMICS Lift Analysis 5.1 The Four Forces 5.2 Mass 5.3 Lift Analysis 5.4 The Factors Affecting Cl 5.5 The Effect of Angle of Attack 5.6 The Effect of the Wing Shape 5.6.1 The Effect of Leading-Edge Radius 5.6.2 The Effect of Camber 5.6.3 The Effect of Aspect Ratio 5.6.4 The Wing Planform 5.6.4.1 The Effect of Sweepback 5.7 The Effect of Airframe-Surface Condition 5.8 The Effect of Reynolds Number 5.9 The Relationship between Speeds, Angles of Attack and Cl 5.10 Aerofoil Profiles 5.10.1 High-Lift Aerofoils 5.10.2 General-Purpose Aerofoils 5.10.3 High-Speed Aerofoils Self-Assessment Exercise 81 81 81 82 84 84 85 86 86 87 88 88 89 91 92 93 93 94 94 95 Lift Augmentation 6.1 Wing Loading 6.2 Clmax Augmentation 6.3 Slats 6.3.1 Automatic Slats 6.3.2 Manual Slats 6.4 Slots 6.5 Leading-Edge Flaps 6.5.1 The Krueger Flap 6.5.2 The Drooped Leading Edge 6.6 Trailing-Edge Flaps 6.6.1 The Plain Trailing-Edge Flap 6.6.2 The Split Trailing-Edge Flap 6.6.3 The Slotted Trailing-Edge Flap 6.6.4 The Fowler Flap 6.6.4.1 The Effect of Trailing-Edge Flaps 6.6.5 Leading- and Trailing-Edge Combinations 6.6.5.1 The Effect of Sweepback on Flap Self-Assessment Exercise 99 99 99 100 101 103 103 103 105 106 106 107 108 108 109 110 110 112 113 119 119 Drag 7.1 Parasite (Profile) Drag ... 257 11 .7 11 .8 11 .9 11 .10 11 .11 11 .12 11 .13 11 .14 11 .15 11 .16 11 .17 11 .18 11 .19 11 .20 11 . 21 11. 22 11 .23 11 .24 11 .25 11 .26 Aeroplane Design Features Affecting Directional Static Stability 11 .6 .1. .. Exercise 17 1 17 2 17 2 17 2 17 3 17 4 17 4 17 5 17 5 17 5 17 5 17 6 17 6 17 6 17 6 17 6 17 6 17 6 17 7 17 7 17 7 17 8 17 8 17 8 17 8 17 8 17 9 17 9 17 9 18 1 18 9 18 9 18 9 18 9 19 0 19 0 19 1 19 1 19 3 19 3 19 5 19 6 19 6 19 7 19 7 19 8 19 8... 7. 21 Barn-Door Flaps 7.22 Drag Parachutes Self-Assessment Exercise 12 0 12 0 12 0 12 0 12 0 12 1 12 1 12 1 12 1 12 2 12 2 12 3 12 5 12 5 12 5 12 6 12 6 12 6 12 7 12 7 12 8 12 9 12 9 13 0 13 0 13 0 13 2 13 2 13 3 13 4 13 4 13 4