References for improvements in adult’s visual sensitivity? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 26, 379–390 Spitz, G (1988) Flexibility in resource allocation and the performance of time-sharing tasks Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting (pp 1466–1470) Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors Society Squire, L R (1992) Declarative and non-declarative memory: Multiple brain systems supporting learning and memory Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 4, 232–243 523 Tulving, E (1985) How many memory systems are there? American Psychologist, 40, 385–398 Vereijken, B., van Emmerik, R E A., Whiting, H T A., & Newell, K M (1992) Free(z)ing degrees of freedom in skill acquisition Journal of Motor Behavior, 24, 133–142 Verfaellie, M., Bauer, R M., & Bowers, D (1991) Autonomic and behavioral evidence of “implicit” memory in amnesia Brain and Cognition, 15, 10–25 Volpe, C., E., Cannon-Bowers, J A., Salas, E., & Spector, P E (1996) The impact of cross-training on team functioning: An empirical investigation Human Factors, 38, 87–100 Squire, L R & Cohen, N J (1984) Human memory and amnesia In G Lynch, J L Mc Gaugh, & N M Weinberger (Eds.), Neurobiology of learning and memory (pp 3–64) New York: Guilford Welford, A T (1968) Fundamentals of skill London: Methuen Stadler, M A (1989) On learning complex procedural knowledge Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 1061–1069 Wightman, D C., & Lintern G (1985) Part-task training for tracking and manual control Human Factors, 27, 267–283 Swinnen, S P (1990) Interpolated activities during the knowledgeof-results delay and the post-knowledge-of-results interval: Effects on performance and learning Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 692–705 Swinnen, S P., Schmidt, R A., Nicholson, D E., & Shapiro, D C (1990) Information feedback for skill acquisition: Instantaneous knowledge of results degrades learning Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 706–716 Teichner, W H., & Krebs, M J (1974) Laws of visual choice reaction time Psychological Review, 81, 75–98 Thorndike, E L., & Woodworth, R S (1901a) The influence of improvement in one mental function upon the efficiency of other functions I Psychological Review, 8, 247–261 Thorndike, E L., & Woodworth, R S (1901b) The influence of improvement in one mental function upon the efficiency of other functions II The estimation of magnitudes Psychological Review, 8, 384–395 Thorndike, E L., & Woodworth, R S (1901c) The influence of improvement in one mental function upon the efficiency of other functions III Functions involving attention, observation, and discrimination Psychological Review, 8, 553–564 Welford, A T (1976) Skilled performance: Perceptual and motor skills Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman Willingham, D B., & Goedert-Eschmann, K (1999) The relation between implicit and explicit learning: Evidence for parallel development Psychological Science, 10, 531–534 Willingham, D B., Koroshetz, W J., & Peterson, E W (1996) Motor skills have diverse neural bases: Spared and impaired skill acquisition in Huntington’s disease Neuropsychology, 10, 315–321 Willingham, D B., Nissen, M J., & Bullemer, P (1989) On the development of procedural knowledge Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 1047–1060 Winstein, C J., & Schmidt, R A (1990) Reduced frequency of knowledge of results enhances motor skill learning Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 677–691 Wisher, R.A., Sabol, M A., & Kern, R P (1995) Modeling acquisition of an advanced skill: The case of Morse code copying Instructional Science, 23, 381–403 Woodworth, R S (1899) The accuracy of voluntary movement [Monograph] Psychological Review, 3, 1–119 Ziessler, M (1998) Response-effect learning as a major component of implicit serial learning Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 962–978 PA R T S E V E N LANGUAGE AND INFORMATION PROCESSING CHAPTER 19 Language Comprehension and Production REBECCA TREIMAN, CHARLES CLIFTON JR., ANTJE S MEYER, AND LEE H WURM LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION 528 Spoken Word Recognition 528 Printed Word Recognition 529 The Mental Lexicon 530 Comprehension of Sentences and Discourse 532 LANGUAGE PRODUCTION 536 Access to Single Words in Spoken Language Production 536 Generation of Sentences in Spoken Language Production 538 Written Language Production 540 CONCLUSIONS 541 REFERENCES 542 Psychologists have long been interested in language, but psycholinguistics as a field of study did not emerge until the 1960s It was motivated by Chomsky’s work in linguistics and by his claim that the special properties of language require special mechanisms to handle it (e.g., Chomsky, 1959) The special feature of language on which Chomsky focused was its productivity Possessed with a grammar, or syntax, humans can produce and understand novel sentences that carry novel messages We this in a way that is exquisitely sensitive to the structure of the language For example, we interpret The umpire helped the child to third base and The umpire helped the child on third base as conveying distinct messages, although the sentences differ in just one small word We know that He showed her baby the pictures and He showed her the baby pictures describe quite different events, even though the difference in word order is slight We can even make some sense of Colorless green ideas sleep furiously (Chomsky, 1971), which is semantically anomalous but syntactically well formed The same kinds of abilities are found at other levels of language We combine morphemes (units of meaning) in systematic ways, and so understand Lewis Carroll’s (1871/1977) slithy toves to refer to more than one tove that has the characteristics of slithiness And we can combine phonemes (units of sound) according to the patterns of our language, accepting slithy but not tlithy as a potential English word Early psycholinguists described our comprehension and production of language in terms of the rules that were postulated by linguists (Fodor, Bever, & Garrett, 1974) The connections between psychology and linguistics were particularly close in the area of syntax, with psycholinguists testing the psychological reality of various proposed linguistic rules As the field of psycholinguistics developed, it became clear that theories of sentence comprehension and production cannot be based in any simple way on linguistic theories; psycholinguistic theories must consider the properties of the human mind as well as the structure of the language Psycholinguistics has thus become its own area of inquiry, informed by but not totally dependent on linguistics Although Chomsky and the early psycholinguists focused on the creative side of language, language also has its rote side For example, we store a great deal of information about the properties of words in our mental lexicon, and we retrieve this information when we understand or produce language According to some views, different kinds of mechanisms are responsible for the creative and the habitual aspects of language, respectively For example, we may use morphemebased rules to decompose a complex word like rewritable the first few times we encounter it, but after several exposures we may begin to store and access the word as a unit (Caramazza, Preparation of this chapter was supported by NSF Grant SBR9807736 to R.T and NIH Grant HD18708 to C.C 527 ... some sense of Colorless green ideas sleep furiously (Chomsky, 1971), which is semantically anomalous but syntactically well formed The same kinds of abilities are found at other levels of language... (units of sound) according to the patterns of our language, accepting slithy but not tlithy as a potential English word Early psycholinguists described our comprehension and production of language... language in terms of the rules that were postulated by linguists (Fodor, Bever, & Garrett, 1974) The connections between psychology and linguistics were particularly close in the area of syntax, with