The HACCP and FSO Systems for Food Safety 513 Table 21–4 Plan Stringency in Relation to Degree of Health Hazard and Conditions of Use Conditions in Which Food is Expected to be Handled and Consumed After Sampling Type of Hazard No direct health hazard Utility (e.g., general contamination, reduced shelf life, and spoilage) Health hazard Low, indirect (indicator) Moderate, direct, limited spread Moderate, direct, potentially extensive spread Severe, direct Reduce Degree of Hazard Cause No Change in Hazard May Increase Hazard Case Case Case Case Case Case 10 Case Case Case 11 Case Case Case 12 Case 13 Case 14 Case 15 Source: ICMSF,8 copyright c 1986 by University of Toronto Press, used with permission examples presented were selected to reflect different plan stringencies (for two- and three-class plans) and limits for a variety of organisms Suggested guidelines for further processed deboned poultry products studied in Canada See Table 21–5 Canadian criteria for cottage cheese and ice cream:16 Coliforms: n = 5, c = 1, m = 10, M = 103 (for cottage cheese and ice cream) Aerobic plate count: n = 5, c = 2, m = 105 , M = 106 (for ice cream only) Recommended criteria for cooked ready-to-eat shrimp: 15 S aureus: n = 5, c = 2, m = 50, M = 50 Coliforms: n = 5, c = 2, m = 102 , M = 103 Recommended criteria for cooked ready-to-eat crabmeat:15 S aureus: n = 5, c = 2, m = 102, M = 10 Coliforms: n = 5, c = 2, m = 500, M = 5, 000 Table 21–5 Suggested Guidelines for Further Processed Deboned Poultry Products Tests/Conditions N c m M APC (heat before serving) APC (cook before serving) APC (bring to boil before serving) S aureus E coli 5 5 3 104 106 105 102 10 105 107 106 104 102 Note: No salmonellae, yersinae, or campylobacters allowed Source: From Warburton et al.29 514 Modern Food Microbiology Both products in criteria and should be free of salmonellae and L monocytogenes The coliform criteria are recommended for process integrity REFERENCES Bryan, F.L 1990 Application of HACCP to ready-to-eat chilled foods Food Technol 44(7):70–77 Bryan, F.L 1988 Risks of practices, procedures and processes that lead to outbreaks of foodborne diseases J Food Protect 51:663–673 Codex Alimentarius Commission, 14th Session 1981 Report of the 17th Session of the Codex Committee on Food Hygiene Alinorm 81/13 Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization Corlett, D.A., Jr 1998 HACCP User’s Manual Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers, Inc Dean, K.H 1990 HACCP and food safety in Canada Food Technol 44(5):172–178 Elliott, H.P., and H.D Michener 1961 Microbiological standards and handling codes for chilled and frozen foods: A review Appl Microbiol 9:452– 468 Forsythe, S.J., and P.R Hayes 1998 Food Hygiene, Microbiology and HACCP Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers, Inc ICMSF 1986 Microorganisms in Foods Sampling for Microbiological Analysis: Principles and Specific Applications, 2nd ed Toronto: University of Toronto Press ICMSF 1988 Microorganisms in Foods Application of the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) System to Ensure Microbiological Safety and Quality London: Blackwell Scientific Publications 10 Kilsby, D.C 1982 Sampling schemes and limits In Meat Microbiology, ed M.H Brown, 387–421 London: Applied Science Publishers 11 Miskimin, D.K., K.A Berkowitz, M Solberg, W.E Riha, Jr., W.C Franke, R.L Buchanan, and V O’Leary 1976 Relationships between indicator organisms and specific pathogens in potentially hazardous foods J Food Sci 41:1001– 1006 12 Moberg, L 1989 Good manufacturing practices for refrigerated foods J Food Protect 52:363–367 13 Mortimore, S.E., and C.A Wallace 1994 HACCP: A Practical Approach New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers 14 NACMCF 1998 Hazard analysis and critical control point principles and application guidelines J Food Protect 61:1246– 1259 15 National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods 1990 Recommendations of the Seafood Working Group for Cooked Ready-To-Eat Shrimp and Cooked Ready-To-Eat Crabmeat Washington, DC: U.S Department of Agriculture 16 National Research Council (U.S.A.) 1985 An Evaluation of the Role of Microbiological Criteria for Foods and Food Ingredients Washington, DC: National Academy Press 17 National Research Council (U.S.A.) 1969 An Evaluation of the Salmonella Problem Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences 18 Simonsen, B., F.L Bryan, J.H.B Christian, T.A Roberts, R.B Tompkin, and J.H Silliker 1987 Prevention and control of food-borne salmonellosis through application of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) Int J Food Microbiol 4:227–247 19 Solberg, M., J.J Buckalew, C.M Chen, D.W Schaffner, K O’Neill, J McDowell, L.S Post, and M Boderck 1990 Microbiological safety assurance system for foodservice facilities Food Technol 44(12):68–73 20 Solberg, M., D.K Miskimin, B.A Martin, G Page, S Goldner, and M Libfeld 1977 Indicator organisms, foodborne pathogens and food safety Assoc Food Drug Off Quart Bull 41(1):9–21 21 Sperber, W.H., K.E Stevenson, D.T Bernard, K.E Deibel, L.J Moberg, L.R Hontz, and V.N Scott 1998 The role of prerequisite programs in managing a HACCP system Dairy Food Environ Sanit 18:418– 423 22 Sperber, W.H 1991 The modern HACCP system Food Technol 45(6):116–120 23 Stevenson, K.E 1990 Implementing HACCP in the food industry Food Technol 44(5):179–180 24 Stevenson, K.E., and D.T Bernard, eds 1995 HACCP—Establishing Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point Programs: A Workshop Manual, 2nd ed Washington, DC: Food Processors Institute The HACCP and FSO Systems for Food Safety 515 25 Stewart, C.M., M.B Cole, and D.W Schaffner 2003 Managing the risk of staphylococcal food poisoning from cream-filled baked goods to meet a food safety objective J Food Protect 66:1310–1325 26 Todd, E.C.D 1989 Foodborne and waterborne disease in Canada 1984: Annual summary J Food Protect 52:503– 511 27 Tompkin, R.B 1990 The use of HACCP in the production of meat and poultry products J Food Protect 53:795–803 28 Van Schothorst, M 1998 Principles for the establishment of microbiological food safety objectives and related control measures Food Control 9:379–384 29 Warburton, DW., K.F Weiss, G Lachapelle, and D Dragon 1988 The microbiological quality of further processed deboned poultry products sold in Canada Can Inst Food Sci Technol J 21:84–89 Chapter 22 Introduction to Foodborne Pathogens INTRODUCTION Although a number of different infectious diseases may be contracted from foods under certain circumstances, there are those that are contracted exclusively or predominantly from the consumption of food products Two examples of the former are hemorrhagic colitis and listeriosis and of the latter are botulism and staphylococcal food poisoning Anthrax and brucellosis are two diseases that have in decades past been contracted from eating diseased animals, but, with the prevalence of these diseases being so low, they are rarely if ever contracted via the foodborne route The recognized foodborne pathogens include multicellular animal parasites, protozoa, fungi, bacteria, viruses, and prions (Exhibit 22–1) An overview of these organisms is presented in this chapter relative to their general habitats, their entry into foods, and general mechanisms of pathogenesis, and how they differ from closely related nonpathogenic species/strains More details on each can be found in the respective chapters that follow Foodborne Illness Cases in the United States The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP) is the federal agency that gathers, analyzes, maintains, and reports statistics on all human diseases in addition to its other vast activities related to human health In spite of the research and surveillance activities of this agency, there is no exact count of the number of foodborne illnesses for any year, and there are many reasons for this First and foremost is the fact that not all foodborne illnesses are reported to health authorities at any level Another important factor is the lack of a reporting requirement for foodborne illnesses caused by B cereus, C perfringens, S aureus, and some other agents; and this leads to an undercount of these syndromes in any given year For example, for B cereus cases, the CDCP estimates the number of cases to be 38 times the number of reported cases (see reference 72) Although botulism cases are reported, the CDCP assumes that the actual number for a given year is two times the reported number, and that 100% of reported cases are foodborne On the other hand, L monocytogenes is reported and is covered by sentinel site surveillance (see below) but the total cases are estimated to be two times the reported cases Foodborne shigellosis is estimated to be 20 times the reported cases but only 20% of this number is estimated to be foodborne (see reference 72) 519 520 Modern Food Microbiology Exhibit 22–1 Groups of Foodborne Pathogens Flatworms Flukes Fasciola Fasciolopsis Paragonimus Clonorchis Tapeworms Diphyllobothrium Taenia Roundworms Trichinella Ascaris Anisakis Pseudoterranova Toxocara Protozoa Giardia Entamoeba Toxoplasma Sarcocystis Cryptosporium Cyclospora Fungi—mycotoxin producers Aflatoxins Fumonisins Alternaria toxins Ochratoxins Bacteria Gram positive Staphylococcus Bacillus cereus B anthracis Clostridium botulinum, C argentinensis C perfringens Listeria monocytogenes Mycobacterium avium subsp paratuberculosis Gram negative Salmonella Shigella Escherichia Yersinia Vibrio Campylobacter Aeromonas (?) Brucella Plesiomonas (?) Viruses Hepatitis A Noroviruses (Norwalk, etc.) Rotaviruses Prions Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (new variant form) Toxigenic phytoplanktons Paralytic shellfish poison Domoic acid Pfiesteria piscicida (?) Ciguatoxin Based on all of the CDCP and surveillance activities, the annual number of foodborne illnesses in the United States is estimated to be 76,000,000 with 5,000 deaths, and the genesis of these numbers is indicated in Figure 22–1 The leading causes of gastroenteritis are noroviruses (see Chapter 31), accounting for ca 67% of cases and 7% of deaths, followed by salmonellosis (26%) and campylobacteriosis (17%) About 75% of foodborne deaths are caused by the following pathogens: L monocytogenes, Salmonella, and Toxoplasma.72 Unknown agents account for ca 81% of foodborne illnesses and 64% of deaths.72 CDCP Surveillance The FoodNet data gathering system in the United States collects data on nine foodborne pathogens from sites in nine states (California, Colorado, Connecticut, Georgia, Maryland, Minnesota, New ... shigellosis is estimated to be 20 times the reported cases but only 20% of this number is estimated to be foodborne (see reference 72) 519 520 Modern Food Microbiology Exhibit 22–1 Groups of Foodborne Pathogens... food poisoning from cream-filled baked goods to meet a food safety objective J Food Protect 66:1310–1325 26 Todd, E.C.D 1989 Foodborne and waterborne disease in Canada 1984: Annual summary J Food. .. are foodborne On the other hand, L monocytogenes is reported and is covered by sentinel site surveillance (see below) but the total cases are estimated to be two times the reported cases Foodborne