Handbook of Medicinal Herbs 283 EUROPEAN PENNYROYAL (Mentha pulegium L.) X E Synonym — Pulegium vulgare Mill Activities (European Pennyroyal) — Abortifacient (1; CRC; PH2; PNC); Antiseptic (1; CRC; PH2); Antipyretic (f; APA); Antispasmodic (f; EFS); Carminative (1; APA; CRC; PNC); Cholagogue (f; CRC); Decongestant (f; APA); Depurative (f; MAD); Diaphoretic (f; APA; CRC); Digestive (f; APA; CRC); Diuretic (f; MAD; PHR); Ecbolic (1; CRC); Emmenagogue (1; AHP; APA; PNC); Expectorant (f; APA; EFS; MAD); Hepatotoxic (f; PHR; PH2); Insecticide (1; CRC; PH2); Insectifuge (2; APA; CRC); Nervine (f; MAD); Pectoral (f; CRC); Poison (1; CRC); Purgative (f; MAD); Refrigerant (f; CRC); Stimulant (f; APA; CRC; PNC); Sudorific (f; CRC; EFS); Uterotonic (1; AHP; MAD) Indications (European Pennyroyal) — Amenorrhea (1; FNF; MAD; PH2); Anemia (f; MAD); Angina (f; MAD); Biliousness (f; CRC); Bite (f; EFS; MAD); Cacoethes (f; CRC); Cancer, belly (f; JLH); Cancer, colon (f; JLH); Cancer, pudenda (f; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Cholecystosis (f; PHR; PH2); Cold (f; APA; CRC; PH2; PNC); Colic (1; APA; PNC); Corn (f; CRC; JLH); Cough (f; APA; CRC); Cramp (f; CRC); Dermatosis (f; APA; PHR; PH2; PNC); Dropsy (f; MAD); Dysmenorrhea (f; APA; CRC; HHB; PNC); Dyspepsia (f; APA; MAD; PHR; PH2; PNC); Eczema (f; APA); Fibroid (f; CRC; JLH); Flu (f; APA); Gas (f; CRC); Gastrosis (f; MAD; PHR); Gout (f; CRC; MAD; PNC); Headache (f; APA; CRC); Hepatosis (f; CRC; PHR; PH2); Induration (f; CRC; JLH); Inflammation (f; APA); Itch (f; PNC); Jaundice (f; MAD); Nephrosis (f; MAD); Neurosis (f; CRC; MAD); Polyp (f; JLH); Polyuria (f; PHR; PH2); Scirrhus (f; JLH); Spasm (f; CRC); Splenosis (f; MAD); Syncope (f; CRC; MAD); Tonsilosis (f; MAD); Tumor (f; CRC); Uterosis (f; CRC); Vertigo (f; CRC); Wound (f; APA) Dosages (European Pennyroyal) — Should not be taken (APA); 1–4 g herb, or in tea, ×/day (CAN); tsp (2 g) herb in hot tea (HHB; MAD); 1–4 ml liquid herbal extract (1:1 in 45% ethanol) ×/day (CAN); 0.5–5 ml liquid leaf extract (PNC); 0.6–1.2 ml spirit of pulegium (PNC); 0.05–2 ml EO (I’d hesitate to suggest 0.2 ml, much less ml; I think this is a frequent error in PNC) (PNC) Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (European Pennyroyal) — Class 2b Emmenagogue and uterotonic (AHP) In Canada, allowed in food or beverage only if pulegone-free (AHP) CAN cautions that pulegone in the volatile oil can be irritant, hepatotoxic, and nephrotoxic Symptoms following EO ingestion include abdominal pain, agitation, diarrhea, high blood pressure, lethargy, nausea, pyrexia, and generalized urticaria Abortifacient doses are hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic Because of pulegone’s abortifacient activity, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided “Both the internal and external use of pennyroyal oil has been contraindicated” (CAN) 284 E Handbook of Medicinal Herbs Death reported following ingestion of 15 ml (ca 1/2 oz) EO, after 2-week consumption of alcoholic extract (with pulegone metabolites in the liver) (AHP) Playing it safe, I like to remind everyone that pregnant women are advised against taking (any medicine) this herb or others because the herbs reportedly have some abortifacient properties Further, pulegone, the active compound, is reportedly absorbed through the skin and may be carcinogenic (I think the warning is overrated but would prefer to err on the side of caution) But many of our generally recommended as safe mints also contain pulegone Delaneyites (a group of adherents of the Delaney Cause, that anything containing a carcinogen is a carcinogen) might outlaw peppermint, one of our best medicinal herbs The Lawrence Review certainly puts pulegone at doubt Pulegone is oxidized by hepatic cytochrome P-450 to the hepatotoxic compound, menthofuran Pulegone or a metabolite is also responsible for neurotoxicity and destruction of bronchiolar epithelial cells It extensively depletes glutathione in the liver Hepatic toxicity from overdoses has been prevented with acetylcysteine administered promptly Rats at 80 to 160 mg/kg/day develop encephalopathies Not to be toyed with Pennyroyal oil is toxic and potentially fatal if ingested Symptoms include abdominal cramps, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, rash, dizziness, and alternating lethargy and agitation, leading to kidney failure, massive hepatic necrosis, and disseminated intravascular coagulation Five grams of pennyroyal oil can cause collapse; 11.69 g abortion, collapse, salivation, and unconsciousness Serious toxicity with the tea has not been reported CNS symptoms from ingesting pennyroyal-containing preparations include lethargy, agitation, dizziness, sometimes leading to seizures and auditory and visual hallucinations GI effects include nausea, vomiting, burning in the throat, abdominal pain, and diarrhea (AEH1) EO LD50 = 400 mg/kg orl rat (CAN), LD50 = 4200 mg/kg der rbt (CAN) EUROPEAN PEONY (Paeonia officinalis L.) + Activities (European Peony) — Abortifacient (f; PHR; PH2); Alterative (f; CRC); Analgesic (1; PNC); Antidiuretic (1; HHB); Antiherpetic (1; PNC); Antiinflammatory (1; PNC); Antispasmodic (f; APA; CRC; MAD; PNC); Antiviral (1; PNC); Astringent (1; APA; PNC); CNS-Depressant (1; PNC); Deobstruent (f; CRC); Depurative (f; CRC); Emetic (f; APA; CRC; PHR; PH2); Emmenagogue (f; APA; CRC; MAD; PHR; PH2); Hemostat (1; APA); Hypertonic (1; PHR); Hypotensive (1; PH2); Immunostimulant (1; PNC); Laxative (f; FEL); Myorelaxant (1; PNC); Poison (f; CRC); Tonic (1; CRC; PNC); Uterocontractant (1; PH2); Uterotonic (1; MAD); Vasodilator (1; PNC) Indications (European Peony) — Acne (f; CRC); Allergy (1; FNF; KOM; PH2); Arthrosis (f; APA; KOM; PH2); Asthma (f; MAD); Bleeding (1; APA; CRC); Bronchosis (f; KOM); Cardiopathy (f; APA; KOM); Childbirth (f; CRC; MAD); Chorea (f; FEL); Colitis (f; KOM); Constipation (f; FEL); Convulsion (f; CRC); Cough (f; MAD); Cramp (f; APA; CRC; FEL; MAD; PNC); Cystosis (f; CRC; MAD); Dermatosis (f; APA; KOM; PH2); Diarrhea (f; CRC); Dropsy (f; CRC; FEL); Eclampsia (f; MAD); Enterosis (f; CRC; HHB; KOM); Epilepsy (f; APA; CRC; MAD; PH2; WIC); Epistaxis (f; CRC); Excitability (f; PH2); Gastrosis (f; HHB; KOM); Gout (f; MAD; KOM; PH2); Headache (f; CRC); Hemoptysis (f; MAD); Hemorrhoid (f; APA; CRC; KOM; PH2); Hepatosis (f; CRC; MAD); Herpes (1; PNC); High Blood Pressure (1; PH2); Immunodepression (1; PNC); Inflammation (1; FNF; PNC); Lichen (f; MAD); Lunacy (f; CRC); Mastosis (f; MAD); Migraine (f; KOM; PH2); Mucososis (f; APA; PHR; PH2); Nervousness (f; APA); Neuralgia (f; CRC; KOM; MAD; PH2); Neurasthenia (f; KOM; PH2); Neurosis (f; CRC); Nightmare (f; FEL); Odontosis (f; MAD); Pain (1; FNF; MAD; PNC); Pertussis (f; APA; FEL; PHR; PH2); Phlebitis (f; APA); Prolapse (f; MAD); Proctosis (f; APA; MAD; PH2); Respirosis (f; PH2); Rheumatism (f; PHR; PH2); Sore Throat (f; MAD); Spasm (f; CRC); Splenosis (f; CRC; MAD); Tumor (f; CRC); Ulcer (1; FNF); Uterosis (f; CRC); Varicosis (f; APA; CRC; MAD); Virus (1; PNC); Wound (f; CRC) Root of P officinalis suggested, but not approved, for allergy, arthrosis, cardiopathy, cramp, enterosis, gastrosis, migraine, neuralgia, and neurasthenia (KOM) Flower of P officinalis suggested, but not approved, for arthrosis, bronchosis, cardiopathy, dermatosis, gastrosis, gout, and hemorrhoid (KOM) Handbook of Medicinal Herbs 285 Dosages (European Peony) — tsp (~1 g) flower/cup water (APA; PH2; WIC); 30–40 grains seed for nightmare (FEL); g seed (HHB); 3–12 g peony root (FAY); oz root boiled in a pint of liquid (1 part “good gin”:2 parts water) (FEL); 1–30 drops root tincture (FEL); 0.3–0.6 g powder root for children (MAD); 5–15 drops tincture (MAD); 2–3 fluid oz 3–4 ×/day (FEL) Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (European Peony) — Class “Canadian regulations not allow European peony as a nonmedicinal ingredient for oral use products” (AHP) No peonies were approved by Commission E, but they did say, “No risks known” (KOM) The Physicians Desk Reference was a bit more explicit regarding P officinalis, “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) “Side effects that may occur, particularly in cases of over dosages, include gastroenterosis with vomiting, colic, and diarrhea” (PHR) “Because efficacy has not been documented, therapeutic use cannot be recommended” (PH2) Much of the indicated uses and biological activity is attributed to paeoniflorin EUROPEAN WATER HEMLOCK (Cicuta virosa L.) X Synonym — Cicuta mackenzieana Raup Activities (European Water Hemlock) — Piscicide (1; WO2); Poison (1; DEM); Sialagogue (1; WO2); Toxic (f; HHB) Indications (European Water Hemlock) — Adenopathy (f; JLH); Cancer (f; JLH); Cancer, gland (f; JLH); Cancer, groin (f; JLH); Cramp (f; HHB); Dermatosis (f; HHB); Dysmenorrhea (f; PH2); Eczema (f; HHB); Encephalosis (f; WO2); Epilepsy (f; HHB; WO2); Induration (f; JLH); Inflammation (f; PH2); Meningosis (f; HHB); Migraine (f; PH2); Pain (f; HHB; PH2); Psychosis (f; HHB); Singultus (f; HHB); Somnambulism (f; WO2); Tetanus (f; HHB); Worm (f; PH2) Dosages (European Water Hemlock) — Homeopathic dilutions only Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (European Water Hemlock) — Not covered (AHP) Unskilled herbalists should steer clear of wild herbs in the carrot family (JAD) 2–3 g root potentially toxic (PH2) EUROPEAN YEW (Taxus baccata L.) X Synonyms — T baccata var aurea Carrière, var fastigiata (Lindl.) Loudon, var fastigiata-aurea Sénéclauze, var washingtonii (Richard Sm.) Beissner, T canadensis var washingtonii Richard Sm., T fastigiata Lindl Activities (European Yew) — Abortifacient (f; DEM; HHB; PH2); Antifertility (1; WOI); Antispasmodic (f; DEP); Aphrodisiac (f; DEP; KAB); Arrhythmogenic (1; PH2); Cardioactive (f; PHR); Cardiotoxic (1; PH2); Carminative (f; WOI); CNS-Depressant (1; WOI); Diaphoretic (f; DEM); Diuretic (f; KAB); Emmenagogue (f; DEP; PHR; PH2); Expectorant (f; WOI); Hypotensive (1; HHB); Litholytic (f; DEP); Mydriatic (1; HHB); Narcotic (f; DEP; MAD); Parasiticide (1; HHB); Poison (1; DEP; PH2); Protisticide (1; HHB); Sedative (1; DEP; HH2); Stomachic (f; WOI); Tachycardic (1; PH2); Tranquilizer (1; WOI) Indications (European Yew) — Amenorrhea (1; MAD; PH2); Angina (f; MAD); Asthma (f; KAB); Biliousness (f; WOI); Bite (f; KAB); Bronchosis (f; KAB); Calculus (f; DEP; WOI); Cancer (1; FAD; JLH); Cancer, breast (1; FAD); Cancer, ovary (1; FAD); Cardiopathy (f; MAD); Chest Cold (f; DEM); Cold (f; DEM); Convulsion (f; DEP); Cough (f; DEM); Cramp (f; DEP; WOI); Croup (f; MAD); Cystosis (f; HHB); Dermatosis (f; HHB; PH2); Diabetes (f; HHB); Diarrhea (f; WOI); Diphtheria (f; HH2; PH2); Dysmenorrhea (f; DEM; HHB); Dyspepsia (f; DEP; PH2); Epilepsy (f; E 286 Handbook of Medicinal Herbs DEP; HHB; PH2; WOI); Erysipelas (f; HHB); Fever (f; DEM); Gas (f; WOI); Gout (f; HHB; MAD); Headache (f; WOI); Hepatosis (f; HHB); Hiccup (f; KAB); High Blood Pressure (1; HHB); Hydrophobia (f; KAB); Hysteria (f; WOI); Impotence (f; DEP); Insomnia (1; DEP; HH2); Ischiosis (f; MAD); Jaundice (f; HHB; MAD); Nephrosis (f; HHB); Nervousness (1; DEP; HH2; WOI); Neuralgia (f; MAD); Numbness (f; DEM); Parasite (1; HHB); Raynaud’s Syndrome (f; WOI); Respirosis (f; DEM); Rheumatism (f; DEM; HHB; MAD); Scabies (f; MAD); Stone (f; DEP); Tapeworm (f; PH2); Tonsilosis (f; PH2); Tuberculosis (f; DEM); Water Retention (f; KAB); Worm (f; HHB); Wound (f; HH2) E Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (European Yew) — Not covered (AHP; KOM) Warning: ALMOST all plant parts (except possibly the red aril) of this and other yews contain toxic components and are considered potentially fatally poisonous (FAD) 50–100 g needles fresh weight (0.25–0.5 cup) could be fatally toxic, via asphyxiation and diastolic cardiac arrest; symptoms may include cardiac abnormalities, bradycardia, colic, cramps, dyspnea, gastrosis, headache, hypotension, mydriasis, queasiness, ventricular arrhythmia, vertigo, and vomiting (BRU; MAD; HH2; PH2) EVENING PRIMROSE (Oenothera biennis L.) +++ Synonyms — O acutifolia Rostanski, O biennis var sulfurea Kleb., O chicagoensis Renner ex R E Cleland & Blakeslee, O muricata L., O pupurata Kleb., O rubricaulis Kleb., O suaveolens Pers., Onagra biennis (L.) Scop Activities (Evening Primrose) — Antiaging (1; APA); Antiaggregant (1; APA; CAN; Antiallergic (1; MAB); Antiatherosclerotic (1; PHR); Antiinflammatory (1; APA; MAB; Antithrombic (1; PH2); Antitumor (1; CAN); Astringent (f; APA); Demulcent (f; MAD); rative (f; MAD); Hypocholesterolemic (1; APA; PH2); Hypotensive (1; CAN; MAB; Lacrimatory (1; CAN); Nutritive (essential fatty acid deficiencies); Sedative (1; APA; Vasodilator (1; MAB) PH2); SHT); DepuPH2); FNF); Handbook of Medicinal Herbs 287 Indications (Evening Primrose) — ADD (f; PH2); Alcoholism (1; APA; FAD; MAB); Allergy (1; MAB); Alopecia (f; APA); Alzheimer’s (1; CAN); Anxiety (f; APA); Arthrosis (2; APA; CAN; FAD; PH2); Asthma (1; FAD; PH2); Atherosclerosis (1; PHR); Boil (f; DEM); Bruise (f; DEM; FAD); Cancer (1; CAN); Cardiopathy (1; APA; LAF; MAB); Cholera (f; MAD); Colitis (1; APA; CAN; MAB); Debility (1; DON); Dementia (2; MAB); Dermatosis (1; APA; MAM; PH2; SHT); Diabetes (1; APA; FAD; PH2); Diarrhea (f; MAD); Dysmenorrhea (1; FNF); Dyspepsia (f; MAB); Dyskinesia (1; MAB); Eczema (2; FAD; PH2; SHT); Endometriosis (2; CAN; DON); Enterosis (f; APA; FAD); Erythema (1; MAB); Fibrocystosis (1; DON); Gastrosis (f; APA); Hemorrhoid (f; DEM; FAD); Hepatosis (1; MAB); High Blood Pressure (2; APA; CAN; MAB; PH2); High Cholesterol (1; APA; PH2); Hot Flash (1; MAB; PH2); Hyperactivity (1; PHR); Hypercholesterolemia (1; PHR; PH2); Hyperkinesis (f; PH2); Hyperlipidemia (1; MAB); IBS (1; CAN); Infertility (f; APA); Inflammation (1; APA; FNF; FAD; MAB; SHT); Insomnia (1; APA; FNF); Itch (1; APA; MAM; PHR; SHT); Laziness (f; DEM); Mastosis (2; APA; CAN; FAD; MAB; PH2); Menstrual Distress (f; CAN); Migraine (1; FAD); Multiple Sclerosis (1; APA; CAN); Myosis (f; FAD); Nephrosis (1; CAN); Nervousness (1; APA; FNF); Neurodermatosis (f; PHR; PH2); Neuropathy, diabetic (2; CAN; DON; MAB); Numbness (1; DON); Obesity (f; DEM; FAD); Osteoporosis (2; MAB); Pain (1; PH2); Pertussis (f; APA); PMS (2; APA; CAN; PH2); Prostatosis (2; FAD); Psoriasis (f; MAB); Raynaud’s Syndrome (1; DON; MAB); Rheumatism (2; APA; CAN; FAD); Schizophrenia (1; CAN; MAB); Sjogren’s Syndrome (1; CAN; DON); Stress (1; MAB); Stroke (1; APA; LAF); Swelling (1; APA); Syndrome-X (1; SYN); Tardive Dyskinesia (1; CAN); Thrombosis (1; PH2); Tumor (1; CAN); Xeroderma (1; DON); Wound (f; APA); (Not entertained by Commission E) Dosages (Evening Primrose) — 250 mg GLA/day (APA); 250 mg oil up to ×/day (APA); 250 mg oil/day/and up (PNC); 270–720 mg EPO equivalent to 1–2 g GLA (obviously an error here) (APA); 6–8 g EPO/day, 1/2 as much for pediatric dose (PH2); 2–4 g (child) or 4–8 g EPO/day for atopic eczema; 3–4 g for mastalgia (CAN); 3–12 (500 mg) capsules EPO/day; (1300 mg) capsule (StX with 1300 mg EPO with at least 130 mg GLA and 962 mg cis-linoleic acid) ×/day (NH) Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Evening Primrose) — Class (AHP) The literature looks reasonably clean I’ve heard from two separate personal cases of women taking it satisfactorily for PMS, that it caused migraine-like headaches which they did not experience before taking EPO Anecdotal but credible As one source of tryptophan, which may convert to cerebral serotonin, it can alter brain levels of serotonin, which is involved in some migraine cases Colic, headache, and nausea may occur in a small percentage of subjects CAN reports patients with schizophrenia on phenothiazines may experience mild dyspepsia and/or increased risk of epilepsy They rather give it a green light for breastfeeding mothers, since both linoleic acid and gamma-linolenic acid are normally in breast milk (CAN) The conservative Miller and Murray (1998) book says, “No adverse effects of EPO have been reported Chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity studies of EPO in rats, mice, and dogs revealed no important adverse effects or tumor differences” (MAM) The second edition of the Herbal PDR warns that EPO may possibly lower the seizure threshold in patients being treated with drugs that lower the seizure threshold in schizophrenia One of the better sources of gamma-linolenic acid, often known as GLA (and to some British as gamolenic acid), and tryptophan (FNF) Two large clinical trials with EPO match clinical relief from cyclical breast pain with bromocriptine and danazol (side effects in ca 33%) but with virtually no EPO side effects For PMS, Vitex and nutrients (e.g., magnesium and vitamin B6), are more promising than EPO (DON) EVODIA (Tetradium ruticarpum (A Juss.) T G Hartley) ++ Synonyms — Boymia ruticarpa A Juss., Euodia bodinieri Dode, E ruticarpa (A Juss.) Benth., E ruticarpa var bodinieri (Dode) C C Huang E ...284 E Handbook of Medicinal Herbs Death reported following ingestion of 15 ml (ca 1/2 oz) EO, after 2-week consumption of alcoholic extract (with pulegone metabolites... but would prefer to err on the side of caution) But many of our generally recommended as safe mints also contain pulegone Delaneyites (a group of adherents of the Delaney Cause, that anything... peppermint, one of our best medicinal herbs The Lawrence Review certainly puts pulegone at doubt Pulegone is oxidized by hepatic cytochrome P-450 to the hepatotoxic compound, menthofuran Pulegone