Integrated soil and water management
for orchard development
Trang 2cover photograph
(Olive tees wth scl cover in Abruza, italy, Jose 8 Benites
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Trang 3Integrated soil and
water management
for orchard development
Role and importance
Proceedings of the International Seminar “The role and importance of integrated soil and ‘water management for orchard development” organized by the FAO Land and Water Development Division and the
College of Agricultural Sciences, University of Teramo, Hay 9-10 May 2008 ‘Mosciano S Angelo Italy Techical José Beni FAO Land and Warer Development Division Michele Pisante
cultural Sciences, University of Terao, Ialy
Trang 4“rhc et cen in pre ta
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Contents
Se ằỒ
Executive summary vii
List of acronyms and abbreviations ix Papers presented at the seminar 4 Emerging issues in soll and water management for vineyard and
Ltdeatanacala
Importance of olive-ll production in italy 8 ——
Therole and importance of integrated sil and water management
-2 Betee Mũ Phante and Sagha?
Comparative assessment of practices and their effects using a Soil and water management for alive orchards in Portugal ~
ân gveniewe 38
AG Pinheiro
Soll-moisture regime in dryland vineyards of Catalunya (Spain)
‘influenced by dimate, sol and land management a1 [Eta Sent Mic Ramos Nace, F Fonseca and X Abreu
Precision management in viticulture — an overview of an Australian
integrated approach 5
Buss M.Dalton 5 Olden snd Ga
Inigation- management decision system (IMDS) for vineyards
(Gegions Wand Vio? OMe) 5S Ortega Farias C Acevedo, 1 ighatil F Matus and ¥ Moreno TC co 53 Effects inflation of sol management In olive on sol physical properties and = implieations for yield 65 A Ginez
A sgstams approach or orchard management using simulatlon I Richie and 8, Bao
Strategies to sustain productivity of olive groves on steep slopes
Trang 6Papers submitted to the seminar 89 ‘Chemical and microbiological characterization of olive-mill
{waste-based substrata produced by the O.MDy technology
and their grounds amendment sỉ Falter, A Esposito and & Fontanazza apd M Pepi
Made of olive culture in suitable areas with law environmental Impact 103 {¢ Fontana and Cpr
(Grass swarding of a non irrigated hillside vineyard under ev
Sangiovese Cntr 1 ipa, 6 Ua, 5 Ramaasotn, B Bacher Cento, 109 E Cole’ and 6 ow!
'Whole-plant qas-exchange measurements in grapevine to
estimate water-use effidency 13 G Matti and Orlandi
Relationship between water availabilty and viticultural
performance of Sangiovese, Montepulciano, and Trebbiano TY '6 Moretti ovat & Seghett ond Mt Carimbolh
Foliar fertilization on olive-growing - first results ofa specific {oliarfertiizer application on some cultivars in diferent
‘environments of southern aly 17 =—
Soi-erosion assessment in vineyards 131 IM Poante, AD: Matte, Mor FStagharl and WH Lane
‘The role of vegetative bands in sloping olive orchards ‘tes and runoff (preliminary results) ~ erosion 1y A urita, Ede Luna and Navarro
Annexeg ta
1 Summary of the dscustions of the four working qroups of the ‘concluding “round table" 143
2, Seminar proaramme a7
Trang 7Acknowledgements
“This document isthe resul of fruitful collaboration between FAO and the College of ‘Agriculture and the Department of Food Sciences of the University of Teramo, lily to promote integrated soil and water management through conservation agriculture principles “Many individuals contribute tothe development and review ofthis Proceeding The editors express their sincere gratitde to Des Megaery for his initl review and his wsctl contribution to the Fst dealt For the final draft, Fabio Stagnari a Julian Plummer provided substantial contributions and uscul coments, We particularly want to chank the authors ofthe papers peesented in this Seminar who reviewed and refined the eurrent version ofthis document Special thanks to the European Comaisson for the patronage kindly offered sd tothe Seieniie Secretariat, (Massimo lori), che Organizing Seevetaia assisted by Anna Di Carlo and Antonells Di Matteo: and to the following for thết financial support of this even: the Comune di Mosciano S Angelo, Consorvo di Tutela *Colline Terzmane", Syngenta and leit & Siplas Finally, we especially acknowledge Simone Morini for his elisent preparation ofthe picrues and graphs and Lynette Chalk for formatting ofthis document
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Foreword
A cwo-day international seminar on the role and imporiance of imegrseed s6ïl and svater management far ofchard development (vineyards and live tees) was held atthe College of Agricultural Sciences, the University of Teramo, Mosciano S Angelo, Italy, ‘on 9-10 May 2004, “The principal seminar themes were an international-level investigation, exposition and statement of the “current state of at and emenging ies concerning integrated Soil and water management for viticulture and olivetree crops The seminar faclnated the diffusion of results from a wide range of research in different pats of the world on soil and water management in vineyards and olive orchatds ‘Grape, olives, fig, almonds, dates an earobs have heen culivated since ancint times in many northern Medierrancan 2ess, ranging from Portugal and Spain through southern France to ltly, Greece and Torkey, and from the Neat East 0 Egypt, Tuisia and Morocco More-ezent developments have occurred in Australia, the United States of America and various Soutl American counties, In all of these aces, vine and live production are of major importance supporting large sectors of the population, ‘occupying significant acts of land (and commonly the more fragile and marginal land), an ensuring continuing employment and export opportoities through value-adding ina wide array of related industries An important challenge facing vine many levels of
Trang 10Executive summary
More than 100 participants representing 9 countries (Australis, Chile France, Italy, Porcugal, Spain, Syeian Arab Republic, the United Kingdom, and the United Seates ff America) atended a two-day seminar atthe College of Agricultural Sciences, the University of Teramo, Mosciano S, Angelo, Ital, on 9-10 May 2004, The principal objective was to failiate the diffusion of results from the wide range of reseaech in diffrent parts of the world on soil and water management in sineyards and clive orchards A one-day field excursion was followed by a day of oral snd poster presentations, concluding witl a round-table discussion involsng all participants The Fld excursion visited vine and olive yroves i the couateyside around the University of Teramo, Four field-based exhibitions weee conducted atthe univessity’s ld site on the frm of Paviano Di Giovanpiewo, $m north of the usiversity campus, located in the olũng green hills between the Gran Sasso peak and the Adiatc coast, Exhibits included: 2 field demonstration of visual soil assessment for vine and olive groves, including ‘oil descriptions ofthe experimental trestments, and field measures of pF, slsking! dispersion and water infkration (hydraulic conductivity}
soil capacitance probes for realtime soil-water monitoring by Sentek Puy (Aosta > new technology lạ cover crop/grass cutting in vineyards by Tanesini Technology 2 field demonsteation of new ierpation systems by lvitee 8 Sipast
Day two consisted of 14 orl presentations, 1 poster presentations and aconcluding ound-table session ra hear the opinions ofthe delegates and to achicve «consensus The oral presentations covered a wide range of subject related to the themes and objectives ofthe seminar in particular 2 The local snd global importance of the workshop was emphasize, parculaly as local grape and olive producers compete at the workd-market level The workshop wvas deemed important, not only to focal growers but also municipal officials and iministeators a8 they are ultitstely accountable for loesl economic viability and
environmental quali
>The presence and inpat of the international scientists at the workshop was applauded as were their efforts to bring widely rested techniques and systems to the local community, and to cxoss-check data and local system viability
2 The input of che European Commission fosused on recent reviews of Commo ‘Agricultural Policy and the Thematic Suategy for Sol Protection of the European, Union In particular it highlighted a developing theme: “protection ofthe soi” and it ink with good agricultural practices, Land protection is linked strongly ‘vith heritage protection: protecting the aesthetic nature ofthese lade that i ch a draw for coursts The current dependency on widely spaced avid surveys with subsequent intergrid node modelling for mapping is being supplemented and ‘alidated withthe increase collection of soi, land and vegetation measures The ‘multifunctional ncure of the use of land and the causes of land deterioration was ho resognized
> Another (oeue coneerned ah: With 1.2 million ha of olive groves, [aly is the second largest producer of olives inthe world Eight percent of this production isin southern Italy with 49009 ha inthe Abruzzo region (where the seminar was held) The predonsinance of olive groves on marginal snd sloping lind underscores the need for continuing sustainability viilnce
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‘Only 3 percent of the world’ agricultural land is classed as “stable” for cropping, ‘hence the trong requirement to enact the four principles of conservation agriculture (soil cover zero tillage, restriction of in-field traffic, and routine sil inspections} ‘vith a9 emphasis on “Taemerfaemer” technology transfer The importance was steessed of sei! biopores formation from cover erops and earthworms activity for enhancing water inflation in vineyards and olive groves This represents 3 more dependable and Tonger-teem solution than tilage with its inherent, high sk of ‘erosion on sloping lands
4 simple field method was rpported forthe routine solinspection of soil quaisy and halt, based on visual descriptions and simple, sciensifically robust feld messures Designed tobe farmer-usable, the system provides a resting and monitoring system ‘to support postive change in on-farm practices
Olive production in Portugal now emphasizes permanent soil cover for erosion control with associated increased sol organie matter and biots (earthworms) and Aeereased erosting and runoff Farmer leadership snd fel days are smportant for enacting new on-farm technology such as telescopic arms on pickers, concentrated tece placement, anal shielded sprayers Negative enviconmental ‘impacts are lessen by improved farming practices Demonstaions of improved olive quality and yield are vial as increased profic i important to achieving farmer adoption, "Vine production ia Spain hao radidonally used soil vipping to S5 cm for weed control and infiltration, Recent increased numbers of drought years wih rare but fggressive rainfall events has emphasized the need for zero tillage and cover crops in order to minimize sil erosion in vineyards
> Irrigation shealing in olive groves and vineyards, employing rsl-time capacitance probe measurements and assareness of land variability, i a vital way of ensuring semtinaine producvlo in 3 long-term, sustainable system
Chilean wine producti with dep irrigation has achieved a 20-30 perce in wine quality combined wich a 20-60 percent ceduction in iergation water applied
* Olive production in Spain is largely rainfed on sloping land with low-qualgy sel The traditional use of ellage for weed control and sol aeration i lessening, being replaced by’ cereal cover crops i intertows with herbicide or mowing conteol of ‘vegetation below tees Results demonstrate improved water infration in the inesrows bsnesth cover crops herbicide use,
Fifty: delegates participated in the concluding round-table discussion This was structured to cover the fous major discussion topics ofthe ears sessions the role and importance of eave erops; machinery use; soil and water measurement/monizoring; ad types and role of simulation models Each of four working groups deliberated the theme “moving towaeds funuee iitativs in research, caching, technology and development” before regrouping fora plenary discussion on “puting all cgether ~ che developovent ‘of linkages between land, wate, erop quality insticution building, marketing policies ard modelling”, The closing statement emphasized the need to use the ourpats of the two days to “go forward” and face the continuing challenge of achieving practical sustainable use of land in vineyards and olive groves, workdwide
Trang 12List of acronyms and abbreviations w Dredawn leaf water potential
Al ANOVA Selyaninow Ariity Indes Analysis of variance AWHC Available waterholding capacity AWS BD ‘Automatic weather sation Bulk densiry
CaCO, Calcium carbonate
Cập Common Agrculeral Policy cE Cale carbonate equivalent cru Colonies forming unit
CITRA Research and Extension Centre for Irrigation and Agroclimatology có; Carbon dioxide
cor CORINE Olive Oil Cons Coordinated Information on the Evropean Environment G Stomatal eonductance
CSIRO_——_Commonwealth Sccntifc and Industrial Rescarch Organisation, Ausalia ce wv Copper CCortficients of variation
DD Degree day
DEM DMRT Digital elevation model Duncan's Multiple Range Test bor Dss Protected Denomination of Origin Decision-support ster
Digital terrain movdelling Water distribution Effective rooting depth Evapotranspication Reference evspotranspiration Vine esapotranspiration European Union Fie capacity
Geographical information system
Global Assessment of Human Induced Soil Degradation Geometric mean diameter
Global positioning system
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Atsas Protected Geographical Indication
Irvigation- management decison system
INRA, Institut National de Recherche Agronomique, France IRO-CNR Insticute of Research on Olive Production of Perugia
Trang 13Ks TADA LAL MAD MARS MVP NY NYs OẠN/Bụm Ốc on: (OMWnS OMWNV PESERA PON PRD RDI SALUS SARDI SMU SOM SON SVA TEMP, TIRSAV TY! USLE vn VOPRD we ww
Sires coefficient Land Degradation Assessment in Drslands, PAO project Leaf arca index
Maximum allowed depletion
Monitoring Agriculture sith Remote Sensing Moister virgin pomace
Noteivant Natural vegetation stip
‘Olive-mill by-products processor Organic carbon
‘Olive-mill waste
‘Olive-ll waste-based substrata
‘Olive-mill wastewater Pan-Eucopean Soil Erosion Risk Assessment Prebloom Olive Nutrivant
Panial raorzone deving Regulated deficit irgation
System Approach to Land Use Sustainability South Australian Ressarch and Development Tnsttace Soil map unit
Soil organic mater Summer Olive Nutivant Sol visual assessment “Temperate correction
‘Tecnologie Innovative peril Riciclaggio delle Sanse e delle Acque di Vegetarione “Temperature Variability Index Univers Sol Loss Equation
Virgin pomace
Quality Wine Produced in « Well-defined Region Wilting poine
Trang 15Emerging issues in soil and water
management for vineyard and
olive-tree orchards
‘ABSTRACT
The recent mid-term review of the Common Agricultural Policy and the communication by the European Commission “Towards an EU thematiestrstegy for sil protection” have raised new environmental concerns in relation to intensive vine snd olive production in Europe The main issues are sol erosion, loss of organic matter, snd diffuse contamination A first step towards reversing these negative trends 6 the ‘establishment of coherent and poliy-relevan information covering the whale eycle of diving forces, pressures, tates, impacts and responses
INTRODUCTOM
"The recent mid-term review of thế Common Agrieultonl Poliey (CAP) has further strengthened the focus on environmental concemns by the agriculture sector With particular reference ro sil and water management, Council Regulation (EC) no, 1782/ 2003 of 29 September 2003 has identified (Article 5) the need for member states to ‘ensure that all agricultural land is maintained in good agricultural and environmental condition Annes 1V to this regulation further specifies issues thar need to be taken imo account when evaluating the correct implementation of Acticle5 These issues include soil erosion, organic matter levels, and sil structure These sol-elatedevteria can be derived directly from thelist of major threats to sols in che European Union (EU) as mentioned in the Communication by the Commission to the Council and Parliament COM (2002) 179 “Towards an EU thematic strategy for soil protection”, Inthis communication, the Commission has outlined the major steps that wil ead toa ‘coherent approach within the EU for sil protection Ie identifies the major dstnetive feature of soils, as dstnet from air and water that make the development of lxislation for soil protection quite different from the other environmental compartment “The Communication clesly identifies sil protection 3s a cross-cutting ise that reeds to be addressed in many different policy ateas chat affect sol quality: The major azea of implementation is, of course, agriculture asi ssi the predominant land use inthe enlarged EU Therefore, the CAP becomes one ofthe more effective instruments for achieving succesful sol protection, particuasly against major threats such erosion, decline in organic mater, and soil compaction
SOIL PROTECTION IN VINEYARDS AND OLIVE-TREE ORCHARDS
‘Much attention has been devoted to extensive soil-degradation phenomena occurring in the Mediterranean basin ares, particularly in areas under permanent erops, such
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cyst si and ater management for ochrddeclopent 25 vines and olives Recent reports have highlighted the negative impacts of intensive olive-troe and vineyard cultivation in the ates Soil degradation is usually a major soncern, with figures reporting erosion estimates for olive orchards in Andalusia of SOtonnes/ha/vear a8 2 general valve for olive orchards; 60-190 tonnes/ha/year in conventionally tiled olive orchards with tees aged 55-100 years and average slopes of 10-33 percent in Cordoba Linked with erosion, there isthe major concern of a steady decline in levels of sil ‘organic matter (SOM) in the Mediterranean area, seth vales often below 2 percent in agricultural sols (Zul, Jones and Montanatlla, 2004), ‘The third major threat to soils in Europe as identified in COM (2002) 179 is sil contamination Concerns have been raised about diffuse soil contamination in vineyards and olive orchards by agrochemicals, particularly by eopper compounds in
SOIL EROSION
Trang 17Emerging ssi and water management for vineyard and lives ordbards roune PESERA: annual ei-reson rk in Europe
“The main causes of sil erosion are sil inappropriate agricultural practices (eg Figure 1 shows the elfect of intensive olive cultivation in Andalusia), deforestation (including forest fires, overgrazing and construction activities (road, rallways, ete) (Yassoglou et a, 1988) “The dificulry of properly quantifying soil erosion continues to he a major concern, Adequate monitoring data would facilate indications of curcent trends land the effectiveness of mitigation messures, The Pan-European Soil Erosion Risk ‘Assessment, known as PESERA (Gobin el, 1999), ures a process-based and spatially dliseibured model to quantify sol erosion by water and assess its rsk across Europe “The conceptual bass of the PESERA model can also be extended to include estimates of tillage and wind erosion, Preliminary results for PESERA (Figure 1) are currently being validated using erosion measurements from several European countries (Van ‘Rompacy el, 2003), "Thus, beings quanstaive model, PESERA has the potential for dealing with pan European applications more readily than an expert-based approach It provides 2 basis or eeplacing estimates from Coordinated Information on the European Environment (CORINE) without making excessive data demands However, further development fof the PESERA model and substncal amount of calibration and validation work fare essential in order for it to become operational Preliminary results suggest that, although the model can be applied at regional, national and European levels, low ‘resolution and poor-quality input daca cause errors and uncertaicies at local level Soilrosion indiestore developed from a physically based model will not only provide information on the state of soil erosion at any given time, but also assist in ‘understanding the links berween the different factors that cause erosion Another
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Tugyne lam ester mangement or orchard doeopnent advantage for policy-making is that sconseio analysis foe diferent land ses and climate change is possible using PESERA This will enable the impacts of agriculture poliy, and land-use and climate changes to be assessed and monitored aross Europe ‘At the European scale, there is an initial need to develop an effective tool for erosion-rsk assessment, and 10 offer it asa component of desision support systems that ean explore the implictions of poliey options The PESERA model itself incorporates ‘any of the physical parameters as can be quantified, but it = important for poliey-making 19 assess the impact of the physical soil loss (Of the models reviewed, PESERA fs the most conceptually appropriate because it ekes inte accounts ‘rranoff and etosion sediments Separately, which are the two components of the global erosion process;
‘daily fequency distribution of rainfall month by month, which includes bosh regular and exceptional events; > dynam of sol rusting and vegetation cover, month by month (Le Bissonais ‘other climate information, such 35 freeing days that in part cater for the effect of cral, 3003);
snow and ice
‘The other modes, such as the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) or that of the Institut National de Recherche Agronomigue (INRA), do not ake these aspects into account However a comparison of the results obtained from three models (PESERA, USLE and INRA) wentfcs, with grester confidence, areas currently and not currently eroding, Figure? presents such 2 comparison o the dats currently avilable st European level Tn conclusion, no model can give good estimates of erosion where the input data are poor Ar the Europese level, the sim should only he to provide a tool for dession= ‘making at European level No modelling approach at this level ean produce results relevant atthe local level ‘The following data are needed at European level for models such as PESERA to give satisfactory results ‘sol parameter data derived fvom seale surveys at 1: 250.000;
> digital elevation model (DEM) ata minimum resolution of 259 ms ‘climate data (eg precipitation) 2 resolution of 10 km x 10 kms, ‘up-to-date land/ctop-cover data ata resolution of 59 m
Finally, ic must be accepted that any model selected for application throughout Europe will not give satisfactory results in areas where the main process aking place is not inched inthe model Inthe eae of PESERA, areas where snowmelt erosion or erosion from land-levelling is the dominant process, the results will not be appropriate for
Trang 19Energing ưu in si and water management for vineyard end lives orchards DECLINE IN SOIL ORGANIC MATTER
In response to the concern about low levels of organie matter in Mediterranean soils nd to provide some guidance for policy-makers, he European Soil Database was used to make preliminary estimates of the organic earbon contents of topsoils in southern Europe (Figure 3) However, the original pedotransfer rules of Van Ranst et l-(1995) have been found to give poor result in southern Europe, where the criteria used do not relate well to sol organi eatbon conten In an attempt overcome this problem, the soil map units (SMUs) on the southern part of che European Soil Map were assigned to one of two classes of organic carbon (OC) ~ OC <2 percent and OC > 2 percent — using an expert knowledge base (Zdruli, Jones and Moatanarela, 2004) ‘The results (Figure 3) show that 74 percent of the land in southern Europe has 2 surface soil horizon (2-30 cm) that contains lss than 2 percent OC (3.4 percent organic matter), This is an important statistic and it is now clear thatthe deline in organic matter content of many soils in southern Europe, asa result of intensive cukvation, is now recognized as a major process of land degradation, Table 1 highlights the low levels of OC currently afliting the countries “The pedotransfer roles defined by Van Ranst eta (1995) have been refined by Jones of southern Europe, ‘etal, (2003 and in press, These refined roles have been applied to 21 km x 1 km soil «dataset derived from the European Sol Database, geographically extended CORINE land cover dataset (Hiederet, 2001; Hiedere and de Roo, 2003),aDEM and accumulated average annual temperature data from the Monitoring Agriculture with Remote ‘Sensing (MARS) projec (Vossen and Meyer-Rous, 1995) together with processed data from the Global Historical Climatology Network (GHCN) (Easterling, Peterson and Kar, 196) The I-km soil data were produced using a weighting procedure, thùng imo account soil type variability within the SMUs at European level “The effec of climate on OC content was accounted for by applying a cemperarure ‘correction (TEMP ) inthe form ofa sigmoidal fnction of the ype:
TEMP, = feos) #6
Trang 20An — WESSO7H Heense
pels of southern Europe
wgEetelestGEZEM co dun (on)
Final caleulated OC values (Figure 4) were compased with measured values from ‘more than 12009 points in the United Kingdom and lay (sce Figures § snd 6) The cocficent of determination was found to be 29, indicating a good corrdladon berveen tstimated and calelated OC values Because OC content, particularly inthe topsoil, changes significantly with land use, any attempt to map the distbution of soil OC in Europe most be based on accurate land-use/land-cover dats Thus, using CORINE land-cover data forthe period 1988- 1992 is consistent with defining 2 reasonably accurate OC baseline in 199
‘Organic carbon content of topscl (0-30 em) in Europe
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Energi snes in sand water management for vineyard end livese orchards preliminary baseline status of organic
‘srbon/matterin soils t 1999, However, these data, a I-km resolution, mast be further validated against national OC data This type of work is ongoing in Finland and Scotland (United Kingdom), bur similar cheeks should be sade in other countries where suitable data for comparison exist Figure shows OC stocks in topsoil for Europe calculated using the data from Figure 4
SOIL CONTAMINATION Concerns have been raised in relation to the soil contamination of vineyards by copper The new thematic strategy for soil prorection has raised the issue of contamination of soils by Rewvy metal, caused by & number of practices, This issue is particularly Sensitive in view of the Fevision of the sewage sludge directive and the possible future directive on biowaste Aispossl Moreover, knowledge-based policy-making is hampered by the lack fof comparable data across Europe on current levels of heavy metals in soil, ‘A recent inventory aimed to produce 4 firt estimate of the distribstion of bheswy-metal compoundsin EU member states Figure 8 shows an example for copper "The data clearly show the lage areas with no information, of with information thác is difficult tơ harmonize and compare across country borders
CONCLUSIONS
‘There are emerging environmental concerns in telation to the culsvation of vinevards and olive orchards The midsterm review process has tried ta address several of these concerns Special attention i required on the issue of soil degradation, particularly as ic intimately linked with water management and good agricultural practices, ‘Thereisstilla great gapin knowledge across the EU ahout the extent ofthese
Location of sampling sites for determining organic {arbon inthe agricul sls of tly
Nationa oi iventry sites (5 00) in England and ures Wiles (United Kingdom) overlaid onthe map of organi “arbon dase or Europe
Trang 22
0 rucrated sil and ater management for ocd dees runic cron geds nlopten Ben Eeepe | pane dic IGUNE? policy implementation and cross- negative effects ‘This makes effective
‘Therefore, one ofthe frst intaives proposed in COM (2002) 179 has ben the development of an efficient soil information system covering all cements of the cycle of driving forces, pressures, states, impacts and responses and providing information at different scales: at the poliey-relevant local level for implementation and advice to farmers; a the regional level for planning and monitoring purposes; and at national and EU level for regular reporting about the status of European soil REFERENCES Batjes, NAH 1996 Toul carbon and ricrogen in the soils of the word, Eur J SoS, 47: 151-168
Trang 23Energies in ul and wt managment [ ieoundsed go benh:
European Sil Buteau~ Scientific Commitee, 199, Hasty metal ace loon) se organic ate conten of Enropen so jeasbty sad Ip, tly Gobi, A Govers G, Kithby, Mi Le Bisonnais, Y, Rosas, C Puigdefabregas, J Van Tynden, G 8 Jones RJA 199, PESERA Pret Technical Anne, Contact No QUES
-CT 1990-0118), Eurepein Camtnision
Wieder, R 2001 Buropcun catchment infomation sate for agienobsmewil mệt Proceing Hiederer R 8 de Rooy A 2003.4 Enropean fl nettork and atconent dats st European ‘Commission Jone Reseach Centre, lpr, Ral: Kel no- EUR 20708 EN 43 pp Jones, RJ.A, Hiedrer, ‘evn in Enrpe Pros th European Congress on Regional Genco Cartography ad Re Rusc,E, Loveland 2 & Montanaella, L, 2025 lop oganie
Information Stems, Bologna, lly, 17-20 June 2003 pp 249-251
Jones, RJA, Hiederer R Rusco,E, Loveland, PJ & Montanarella L In pes Estimating engine carbon in the wis of Europe fr policy suppor, En J Sol Sei eubmined), LeBisonnats, ¥,Jamagne, ML, Lambert, J-Le Bas,CDaroussin, J Ring, D,Cerdan, Ox, Léonard, J & Breton, LoM 2003, Pai Envopen sil crating ed evo assent
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Morgan, RLLC 195 Sn crs snd enneratinn Ssond on Pa, UK, Long man, Oldeman, LR, Hakkeling, REA & Sombraek, WG 1991 World map ofthe atu of ‘uma-indnced oi degradation wit explavatory note, Second eve etion Wageningen,
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Van Lynden, Feanes, Counc of Europe G WJ 1998 European od resouces: ator and Environment No 71 Stashour, Van Ranst,£ Thomason, A} Darousi, J, Holl, JMa Jones, R.A Jamagne,M King and Vanmechelen, 1-199, Elaboration of an enter knowledge database to interpret
the 1 903090 EU Soil Map for ewironmenta purposes aD Kids, RJA fons & A ‘Thomasson, els Eerapen land information sptems for aroconcironmental monitoring, p.71-88, Loxembourg, Office for Oca Publictons of the European Commi EUR 16252 EN
Van Kompacy, A.J Vidlklont, Vi, Jones, R.A Montanarlla, Ly Verteaten, Go Iazroffi P, Dosa Y Krat, J» De Vente, ]-8 Poesen J 2023, Valin of wal eosin ‘umatr at Esropean yee Luxemburg, Ofc for Offa Pabieatons
‘Commis FUR 20827 EN 28 pp
Vossen, PB & MeyerRou, J 199, Crop monitoring spd ya forecasting acts ol the MARS Projet fe D King RJ Jones & A Thomauon, ede Enrpan fond eyormation gatems for agro-encinnmenial munitorng pp 11-29 Luxembourg, Offic for Offi Publications ofthe Eurapens Contmanies EUR 18232 EN
Yassoglou, Nz Montanarcls, L, Govers, Gy Van Lynden, Gx Jones, RA Zara, 2 ‘Kirkby M Giordano, A Le Bissonnais,Y Daroussn, J 8 King, D 1995S ersin in Purape Pseopean Sol Bore Techaisal Report
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Importance of olive-oil production
n Italy
INTRODUCTION From a geographical point of view the prime area of Taian olive production is located between 30 and 45 °N, which in general isthe geographical distribution of suitable areas for olve-tree produetion in the northern hemisphere (Figute 1) In dhe Mediterranean area, Italy represents the centeal point of olive production because ofits history and environmental conditions As such, it can be considered as an open laboratory producing the latest and most advanced technologies able to support for itself and for the world, the development of olive-production techniques and practices ‘Olive species are considered to have originated in the Neae East Mediterrancan axea (specifically Minor Asia, between Pamir and Turkstain), However, aly (and in particular Sicily and Magna Grecia) can be considered the area of greatest economical Importance Olive production commenced in Ialy in the VIII-VI century BC and ‘gained considerable economic importance thanks to, fist, the Phoenicians, and, Tater, the Greeks At the same time alive production developed along the coastal and subcoastl areas of the eastern Mediterranean Sea, inchading southern European and horthern African countries, advancing ater with the Romans to the northern areas of
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OLIVE PRODUCTION: EXTENSION, cue ‘CONSUMPTION AND EXPORTATION Evolution through the milenniums of olive ee
production inthe Noa Est andthe Mediteraneon basin “Today, Italian olive production covers approximately 1 700.000 ha, 90 percent ff which are located in southern Traly, where Poglia represents the ‘ost important region, with sbout 370000 ha, followed by the Calabria {about 186 000) and Sicily about 160.000 ha) "These theee regions account for more than 60 percent of Traian olive production, In the sentre-narth of laly the vost important regions for olive-ree production are Tuscany (about 108 000 ha}, Lazio (abour $7 000 ha}, Campania (about 81.009 ha), and Abruzzo about 44 039 ha), The other Italian regions, except Piedmont aod Valle d'Aosta that have no olive production, cover a relatively small rez Sardinia {about 39 699 ha), Baslest about 31069 ha), Umbria (about 28 890 ha), and Liguria (Gout 14 000) Ta terms of olive-il production, aly anks second in the world (after Spain) producing an average oil quantity over the ast four yeurs of 550.900 tonnes, mal repeeseoed hy extra-virgin and virgin olive ols Tn terms of olive yields, che Puglia region is the leader with about 250 000- 300009 tonnes of olive oil per year, athough the region is characterized by alternate bearing Calabria and Sicily follow with about 150000 and 50 000ronnes/year, respectively "As regards olive-oil consumption, Htaly is the word leader with a consumption of 1650099 tonnes, corresponding to about 12 kx per head of popultion Traly exports about 329 000 tonnes of olive vil por year: Therefore, eking imo —- necessarily impor a large amount of oi usually more than $29 009 tonnes/yeae: These limports are from other producer countries in the European Union (EU), such as Spain and Greets and other countries, such as Tunisia and Turkeys couneries chartered by production greater than thei internal consumption Tnalianolvecol exports are directed towards diferent countries, mainly the Usited States of Americ, Japan, Canada sed Austeali, where th ol imported fom Italy has ‘gained a strong position in recent years in comparison wich ol imported from Spain, ‘Greece and Tanisia ternal consumption and the amount of olive oil exported, faly must,
1 is important to note that national and jnteroational marketing in Tel is ‘controlled by the national and multinational oil industries that nse the traditional Italian trademarks Specific 10 che extra-viegin olive oils produced in Taly ~ characterized by dlitfrent chemical and orgaroleptic properties, depending on environmental, genetic, ‘ronomieal snd technological fetors ~ special postion must he given 0 the oils that sre clasiied ss Protected Denomination of Origin (DOP) and Protected Geographical Indication (IGP) There are 24 DOP from a variety of olive-produeing regions and only IGP io Tuscany (Iable 1) Total annual production of both DOP and IGP olive bili curently estimated at abou 3 409 ronnes, 0 percent of whichis eepresented by ‘Tuscany [GP The household consumption of DOP and IGP extra-virgin oils is about 686 tonmes/year In terms of organic olive oil, the other product sceor of extes igi vil ts production aeea i about 77 003 ha, mainly in Calabria, Puglia, Tuscany, Sicily, Suedinia and Campania The production of such oils estimated a 25029 conses/vear and household consumption is about 1 000 vonnes/year The surplus DOP and IGP
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Importance flo production in ely cil production is destined for export (Autor Vari, 2003),
GEOGRAPHICAL AND,
ENVIRONMENTAL DISTRIBUTION OF OLIVE PRODUCTION
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Molise Ie is considered the medium climate subarea for olive cultivation, excep for some coastal sress in Campania, which are included inthe warm subarea (Figo 3) In general, che eavisommental conditions ofthis area ensure optimal productivity Maximum yildsare gained with supplemental irgation, based an seasonal vonditons and plans requirements In terms of marketing, the Full value of the product has not been achieved yet owing toa lack of concentration of product and adequate marketing strategies, In this are, fresh olive and oil marksting can he oserved ~ beter than io the northern ateas ofthe country where the production tnd to Be low “The northern arca includes the central-northernolive-producing resions of Lazio, Macche, Umbria, Tassansy Ligutis, Emilia Romagna, Lombardy and Veneto, Em general, the oil production i this ses mạch lower than ấn he the txo se From the climate point of ew this area ean be inelaed in the wuld subarea, except or the coastal areas of Liguria and south of Tuscany (Figure 3) Generally speaking, the environment isnot suite! so masimsum productivity in sms of olive quatity and annual bearing Itis possible to observe recurring damage from cold weather, which an sometimes destray flowering bids and, parislly or totally, thế camopy, The oi! is generally of medium to high quality, depending on the lo tradition of good: harvesting practices and wibextracion processes, partivulgely in Tuscany; Umbria, northern Lari, Liguria and Lake Gards The extr-vingin live quality of this extreme area of olive growing commands ‘medium and high prices However, olive growing inthis tegion is not always profitable ‘wing to the low peoductviy of the olive orchards and the high cost of production (Fomesnazza, 190i 3009)
TTALIAN OLIVE PRODUCTION: CONDITIONS AND PRODUCT QUALITY The production of olives in lly, in terms of agronomic scenarios, quite comple: Ici posible wo coasider the situation aya maa where the tesserae (the small les of the mosaic) are spread over a national surface, with aseesary modifications for olive and olive-oil production in each different geographical area Increasingly, national and International consumers ae differentiating specific extra-virgin olive oils elation to thse specific region of origin, For example, some people speak abour exta-vrgin olive cil from "Chianti", and other Italian ‘live cls, specifying Tonds Iblea oil or Frantoi il rather than Casaliva or forcign conmumers seek varietals of or Ta extra-virgin for Morale oils Is these examples, the genetic origin of the pradet automatically
links 10 che production are and, a6 4 eomsequence to Sily, Tuseany; Lake Card, Liguria and Umbria, respectively: "As mentioned above, different [aan oils ate typically correlated tthe three areas of culation, to the climate subareas and even mare te the diferent microclimate conditions These differences relate mare ar less tothe influences of the Adriatic, Tyrrhenian and londan Sea or to different soil formations that can modify the glaeifeadon ofthe thace macro ates, In onder eo bette understand such coneepes it in stficien to remember that in Calabria, Sci Puss, and Sardinia olive tces ext be grown on Mat land at sea level, up to 720-800 my abawve sea level (as) Moreover, she same varices produce high-quality oils chat can be dfferene owing 10 dhiflrences in climate and sescnal wath, again linked to elevation, In the pre-Apennine areas of central-nomth [aly such as Umbria, Toseany and Marche he climate area svited for olive tee cultivation is restricted t the 2one ro) 200-259 mass to 490-450 mas In this enviconment, dhe nature ofthe oils produced ielinked essenually to diferent genotype chacscerstie, thei mix nthe fed and how the oil blends are produce Inthe Lombard lakes ates and more presiscly in the Ganda and sca areas there are specifi environmental conditions that facilitate profitable olive growing Central to this are the large dimensions ofthe lakes and the shor: growing season, and particularly
in hilly ses
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rane of b-o proction Fly
the mld suosmer temperatures and the quite high sinfllin Inte summer and auruma, All of this, in combination with local varieties, produces an extra-virgin olive ofl characterized by 2 medium-light fruity, searcely pungent, sveet flavour
ITALIAN OLIVE GERMPLASM
[As mentioned in the introduction, the production of olives in Italy may be considered 4s an open laboratory with many diffrent olive-growing systems, and a very lege numberof varieties from many diferent ares In spite of many: past actompts to clasiy Italian germplasm, the full sumber of saictes gs0wn the different lean olive area remains unknosen, The estimate i 250-300 varieties, grown over a wide variety of areas, However, in eich olive growing fea there are normally asin varieties, secondary ones, and sometimes evatypes mone for less represented, Jin fain ely, more than any other country, very few ares grow specific varieties alone, There are examples in the nonthern Bari Prowinee (Pugh), where the Coraina vgiey is almost che only variety grown, or in the Belise Valley (Sicily), where 99 percent of olive plants are represented by the Nocellaea del Belice vaity Olive varieties an be distinguished in terms of their use in tee diferent types (i) table varieties (i) ol waretes; and (i) double-purpose varieties In Iealy, ble types include: Aseolsna Teners, Bella di Cesignola, Gisrafa and S Agostino; oil
types include: Frantoio, Laccino, Drita, Coratina, Crasuola and Bosana: and double purpose types include: Morescs, Tonda tblea, Nocellaa Funea, Nocellra del Belice, Teeana and Caroles Jacoboni and Fontanazz3, 1981)
Ta all lan regions, oil production i prevalent, However, able-olive prodvction is restricted to specific areas where the wil are fertile and there iy good plant-water supply: In Sicily table-olive proition occurs the est, where they grow the varery Nocellra Eines, and, in the west, where they grow Nocellea del lice la Puglia (Foggia Province), they geow the table sariety Bell dé Cergnola In Calabria, the Souble purpose variety Caroles is grown In Sardinia, the double-purpose varieties “Tanda di Cagliari and Nera di Gonos ate growa An “oasis of specific uble-olive production accrs in Ferrandina (Basilicata), where they grow the double-purpose ‘ariety Maiatics [nthe provinces of Latina and Rome (Lazio), the double-purpose ‘ater lana is grown, while in Ascoli Piceno (Marche), the very ancien table variety ‘Ascolana Tenera is cuivated
‘THE TWO OLIVE-PRODUCTION TYPES IN ITALY
CConsiering envionmental, social and economic situations its possibleto distinguish, an is the sein other Mediteraneao countries, wo diferent types of olive growing “marginal olive-growing areas;
suitable oive-growing tees
Both types ae strictly linked to the evolution of olive-tve production through the ‘Marginal olive-growing areas
“The marginalization of olive production in Italy is inked to geographical and climate considerations that make some areas less than ideal fr olive production, ‘oder technology In some esses, these ares are suitable considering ther climate and peologic situation However steepness of slope leds co unprofiabilty because ofthe large amounts of labour equited and quie low yields, Increased costs af abour tnd cultivation have caosed these areas to become increasingly marginal, with some ‘ning the risk of abandonment
ven with
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sted sil and ater management fr orchard declopment ‘This type of olive production, which must be most propel defined, is dat of imulkpurpose olive peodustioa, In Teas, about 350.009 ha of olive production ate «concentrated in aexs characterized by a high risk of environmental degeadation, These re are represented by: the coastal and internal hilly arsas of Liguria, the Gargano promontory in Puglia, the Cilento territory in Campanis, the Locrde teritory in Calabria and the terstories af Nebrodi and Madonis in Sicily, and, in ation, the pre-Apennine territory from the towns of Assisi co Spoleto in Umbria and the upper pate of Lake Garda Under these marginal conditions, ove groves are often cultivated under specialized production system with dease plantations, es as in Liguria and Umbra, Several sabiliy Iaevers haue been introduced to peotect the land from degsadacion The olive tees ate characterized by very wide and claively superficial root systems (to prevent soil erosion and landslides) Careful consideration has also been given 10 the Infrastructure connected with olive production, eg, the design of teraces, and drainage systems, In addition, olive species in this teritory rellet the ancient production systems with many centenarian olive plants Such age and security characterize the landscape and representa cultural patrimony, according to the modern concept of cultural heritage that is assigned 10 the natural landscape andy particulary, to the agrarian one crested y people over the centuries,
Suitable olive production areas
‘These areas represent about 79 percent of Italian olive production, charaterized by ‘optimal climate and pedologic conditions, They are losted manly inthe south ofthe country The situation in the area suitable for olive cultivation is completly different from that of the marginal lands Where water i aailabie, chen the soil and climate conditions ate strongly favourable for olive production, with strong and wide impacts fon the euleue ofthe regions At present live produetion inthe itale ares in Taly presents different kinds of ~ agronomic, social and economic ‘ves with a predominance of okd and sometimes very ol plants of low efficiency The plantations commonly have itregular distance between rows, and the plats are dificult to manage with modera techniques As a consequence, prodestion is Tow and spasmodic There are some difisulies in conerolling fruit quality, applying appropriate harvesting, and transporting olives at reasonable cost this situation, Yield performance is quite low There are also organizational problems in marketing, felated to the changeable production yearby vest This of course is in strong contrast, ro the suitability of the areas, which can achieve diferent production performances by using appropriate models of olive culvation (Fontanazea, 2009)
TECHNOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF OLIVE PRODUCTION IN ITALY
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ely
‘While the intensive mode! of olive production slegely widespread inthe counties where olive production is well advanced and in the new alive-growing countries (strait, Argentina, Chile, South Airics ad the United States of America), the high density plantation groves ae currently in evolution mainly in Italy, Spain, Aostealia td Chile, Close inspection of this model should asset che developaient of « medivas
high return co investment inthe suitable ates, located above al athe Mat areas oi gently sloping hill country "Asa consequence afte high cost of straddle harvesting machinery anit efiiency, thie ype of olive production aust be planed on a large sale Moreover itis absoltely necessary to have appropriate varieties, genetically adapted to diferent environment Foc this reason, considerable etort nseds 4 be invest in genetic impeovement, This is quite complicated in the case of olive species because ofthe lack of low igour and dwarfing characteristics present in the traditional germplasm, while only afew new sarescs with these characteristics are curtentiy avaiable (Fantanae73, 2002),
OLIVE PRODUCTION SUSTAINABILITY ‘Whatever olive production models are applied, sustainability of production must be pursued This cultural condition, refered to 35 environment protection, aust be combined with a medium to high productivity and high-quality’ production, fbained with costs that ensure an economic profi In this regard, advanced ol production systems (with genetic olive improvement), will guarantee he achieving of fet goals while the advanced olive-production madels being applied st the moment cvinage sie, environmentally aware and protective practices, Such practices include: appropriate soil management by ious use of rippers in olive-grove plantations: ensuring a goed amount of basic mutrents such as phosphorus and potassium; and tho increasing organic matsr levels to increase soil restieney smal reduce mineral fertilization, Associated sith these practices, emphasis i also required om appropriate choice of varieties in relation to ensironnental conditions,
characterized by: elerance/resistance tỏ parasites
> reduced and fractionated yeuly ground nitrogen fertilization, in order to stimulate faster plum growths > localized iergation systems with educed water supplies celate ro real plant needs and tothe biological plane cycles > appropriate sol management providing reduced superficial illage a the begining of ale plantation and subsequently providing a natural permanent cover gras,
periodically mowed snd lett om top of the silk
> reeyeling (by dropping on the sol surface} of pruning residues and olive wants, according to appropriate technologies (Aki et al, 2004) in order to reduce mineral ferilzaden
I the above practices are implemented, modern olive-production systems can be considered ecologically compatible, and especially considering that the olive is an evergreen plant capable of srviving for very lang time aesualating carbon as lignin in its woody structure In addition, olive wood ss combustible, so 2¢ the end of the prodicton cvee, it ean be used 36 an industrial product of high evonomic valu Exch of these outcomes is readily achievable where olive groves are regulated by an conomie eyele with a 30-35 year production time, renewsble theough coppicing of the trunks and renovation ofthe canopy through basal suckers “These ae the types of eontinsing evolutions that Ilan olive production is slowly
and steuily achieving, However, t must be emphasized that because of the lack of Political inputs, the olive-production system risks remaining immobilized, also a3 onsequence of EL esonomie integration of farm protis with, a has been observed in Taya low input in terms of innovations, On the other hand, in Spain for example, rational polities and EU financial support have stimulated 2 ương renovation of olive
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Ioseraed sal and te manages fr nnd deelopmen _groves with an estimated 600 009 ha of new plantations, In par, these are substitutions ‘of old orchards and i par, se olive growing area in the south snl north of Spa, Moreoves, the other FU olive growing counties, such as Greece, Portugal and France,
have introduced major innovations in olive production “There ae valid examples of new platations i Tels in almost all olive-producing regions In these, clear results ae evident, demonstrating the validity of schnologial insovation in olive production, especially where the new plantations ave realized sith Full mechanization (pruning and harvesting included) The econamie validity of technological innovations in olive growing, based on the erteria of intensive fully mechanized cultivation, can be sea in the "new" non- Mediterranean olive growing sountrics of Argentina, Australis, Chile, Mexico, New “Zealand, South Africa andthe United States of America Rapid development in the last ten years has been based fiemly on flly mechanized, intensive olive-grove models in combination withthe use of innovative, continuous oi-extastion technologies ised fom the decanter principle All ofthese achieve lange reductions in labour and energy reeds and costs while ensuring the production of high-quality olive off (Uceds> Ojeda, Hermoso-Ferninder xal Gonvaler Delgado, 1994) Suck technologies im the production and transformation sectors come mostly from aly (Fomtanazza and CCiptan, 2004
REFERENCES
Aver Re Pepi, Ma Esposito, Av & Fontanazza, G 2004, Chemical ond mobioogical shorctnesom foe mal erased abr produced by the (O.Ms By serology Folize il product groves) and she grid aceon, International seminar "Rae and importance of sil nd water mangement for sneyards and live orchards” Mecano
5 Angda aly 9-10 May 200,
Autor Var 2003 ier ol dolls, Kom SMEA,
Blinguet Martner, JM 19% Origine ediffsione dels colicacions Enciclopedia Mondisle el/Olive, Madd, COL Di Giacchino, LSet, 5 & Di Vincenzo, D2 sve ol quabty Ee J Lip So Teh 18
"` per olin, Rome, CENEAC Fontanar2a, G 2000, Osler inemion meccanzzat, Bologna, Raby, Edagricals Fomtanarra,G 2002 Feation of brent rchaolgy National Ole inde Coneeation Building + quality ole indunry through modern methods”, Adelaide, Awaba, 9-13 Ocicer 2602 Fontanazza, G, & Cipriani, M, Influence of ove pressing ow vega
Models of oioentnte in eiable sưa ti lap ‘oironmental impact, Inemational sominar “Kole and importance of soll and water management for sneyaeds and olive orchans", MoscianaS Angelo, Hal, 9-12 May 200 Jacoboni, N-& Fontanazza,G 181 Calnsar Olea REDA, ‘Uceda-Ojeda, ML, Heramoro-Fermnder, M, &¢ Gonzler-Delgado J 98 Comparivon of the
‘lve oil qualdes obtained with the wo and tice way deste, Acta For, 386
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The role and importance of integrated soil and water management for
orchard development
INTRODUCTION Successful orchard production and mitigation of land degradation begins with what local farmers and local communities do on the ground It requires the adoption of technologies, interventions and policies that address the socil, envionmental and economic dimensions ofthe problem in an integrated way Farmer associations including women, and other stakeholders must be involved on the ground, bur also 2 all higher levels of intervention, including the creation of an enabling policy and regulatory framework, as well as financial packages to promote the programmes Integrated soil and water management has to be scientifically sound in order to ensure credibility in the conservation and policy community It also has to be viable economically in order vo ensure farmer adoption and continued sustainability ofthe imerventions, including reducing conflce between farmers and livestock keepers lover natural resources Integrated soil and water management is essencal to enhancing soil quality, sustaining and improving food production, maintaining clean water, and eeducing increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO;) Vineyard and olive-orchard yields are linked closely to sol productivity, which in turn is strongly dependent on the ‘management provided The following factors need to be in optimized for good soil condition, and thus optimal plane growth water infiltration and retention capacity; soil densi; soil porosity; sol structure; and soil health (biological factors) Soil improvement willbe linked with associated activites such as water harvesting, soil and water conservation measure, enhancement of on-farm biodiversity and ‘cosystem functioning, and access to improved vineyards and olve-tee varieties within a farming systems context These may be integrated with land-management practices ‘outside farm plots in order to improve watershed functions, share resources equitably and preserve habitat for wildlife (as wll as protection for farmers from wildlife in areas adjacent vo nature reserves) "This srategy inthe Mediterranean region will require the training of large numbers of local people to serve as extensoniss in their communities, and t facilitate farmers’ access 10 specialized technical information, research findings and experience under similar conditions, an technical knowledge in other communities Training could also include additional topics on nvtrtion, health, and group development
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Inserted sland sate management for onchrl decor sous
Soils in good health, well structured and with good levels of organic matter, show an tive chemial and biological process maximizing aggregation of particles, increasing sol stability and favouring the release and uptake of mineral clements and water The soil physical properties are important to maintaining the productivity ofthe land The dageadation of thee properties has considerable effects on plant growth, Vield and the quality of olve-t2e and vineyard fruits regsedless ofthe nutritional stare of the sil The restoration of degraded soil physical properties takes considerable ime and cost, Arthe same time, physial degradation can increase the risk of water of wind sol «zosion with consequeat impact on society Consider the man} ecent media stories on Slooding and landslides, ioundating towns and cutting roads, inked 0 the denudation of hillslopes Indeed, safeguarding the sil resource foe future generations isthe main task of land managers, Ta general, for good tree-ctop growth, the soil aceds to be loose, with good sigreqation to facilitate the eireulaton of ais water and nutriemts and the penetration ‘of roots Plans that geow in tis typeof sit spend less energy forcing their roots into the sol and exeacting water held at high ssctions Water is need for germination of the seeds as well a for crop growth Soil-water retention depends on soil type and its management ‘Strongly degraded soils with reduced and non-innerconnected poroviny, a reduced levels of organic mater do not have the capucity to store as mush water as they should, and thus have fess water available for crop growth, In arid regions, with low rainfall, Soil moisture is of vial importance In general tillage activities have a negative effect fon soil water, as cultivation tends to not only eause soil compaction, so reducing plant-avilble water supplies, bu also by turning the soi, stored waters lost throvgh evaporation Soil-strutute degradation, often called soil compaction, is regarded as the most serious form of land degradation caused by conventional farming practices (MoGarrs, 2001) Paradoxically, ofall ypes of land degradation, soil-sructure degradation is ‘reversible ad its occurrence preventable ora least coneollable “The main eavses of soil-seuctore degradation are the effects of agricultural eyes and implements, paniclatly working in moist-to-wee sel conditions when the sil is most vulnerable to deformation (MeGarry, 2003), There is maximum potential for soil compaction in conventional exopping systems because most crops aze cultivated ‘moist soil, This usually co kill weeds or prepare seedbeds At both times, there i 4 strong sk of soil compaction asthe moist sols in a weak and degradable condition In mechanized orchan-production systems the continual use of illage implements, especially dxe ploughs, disc harrow, mould-board ploughs and rotovators, overlong periods of tine frequenely results in the formation of dense plough pany containing few potes large enough to be penctated by crop roots The plough pans develop just below the depth to shi the sil is ile and often have smooth upper surfaces with sealed pores, caused by the smearing scion of mould-board ploughs, The depece of ‘compaction depends on the presse exerted by the implements on the soil and the soil-mistue content a the ims [RAINWATER-USE EFFICIENCY
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pooner il and rươr Honggcmeu như development —_
“Tropical and subtropical rainfed agriculture depends on an adequate supply of water fn the roatzone of the soil It has been estimated that soil water isthe limitation to czop production in approsimatelytheee-quarters ofthe world’s arable soils snd is the rain factor responsible for low yields inthe seasonally dry and semi-arid tropes and subtropics, ‘The rainfall that infiltrates inca the soil forms part ofthe sol water of which some nay be used by plants for transpiration, some may return to the tmosphere theough evaporation fom the soil surface, and some ~ where sufficient inflation occues~ may move beyond the rootzane to the groundwater Rainwater cht runs off che land moves downhill towards river courses, conteibuting to peak flows, and is of great concern Runoff is nat only a waste of rainfall that could have contributed to crop production and groundwater supplies, but it feequensly «causes floads or damage to roads and farmland, and erodes sil tha is edepesited in river courses and reservoirs downstream Increased inflration and retention of soil moisture inthe eootzone will est
improved yields, through maximized rainfall tization:
> groundwater recharge ~ thus severing the water lve in wells and the continuity of river and seam flows, > eeduced ish of yield losses through drosghe
PROTECTING THE GROUND AND PROMOTING BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY
Cover eraps have direc and indirect effects on sail properties, panicularly on their capacity te promote an increased biodiversity in the agro-econystem ‘Cover crops are grown during fallow periods, betwesn the harvesting and planting ‘of sommercil crops utilizing sealable mostarein the soi Their growth ie ineerrupted fither before thế ngạt crop i sown, or afer sowing the next crop, but belore competition between the eto crops hegins, Cover erops energie crop proction, but they abo present some challenges ‘A liv or dead vegetative soil cover absoebs most ofthe energy of the raindrops that fall on it and by the time this rainwater reaches the soil below, its abiiy t0 sisintegeate soil aggregates and detach fine particles is greatly eeduced Consequently, ‘whore srubbe is retained of cover ctops grown, theres litle or ao clogging of surface soil pores by detached particles, an litle deposition of sil particles chat would form 2 erist on the surface Tie physical contacts between a cover andthe sol surface obstruct the movement cof the unolf, slowing it down, giving more time for infiltration and so reducing the volume of runofl Thus, wo aspeets of suxface cover can be distinguished ‘rll surface cover absorbs the energy of raindrops and so prevents the loss of pore
spaces into which rainwater can infiltrate,
> contact cover slows down any runoff, giving more time for infiltration
‘The degree of contact cover is especially important on steep slopes, on sels with naturally lowe infiltration rates, and on degraded soils with surface cruste or seals of low porasiy: The conservation effects of forest stem not so much from the presence lof the tees themselves but from te liter of alle leaves, rwgs and branches, plus any low-growing vegetation, Where the soil surface has not been damaged by srampling, Jess rsinwater wl runoff and more will infiltrate into the soi Furthermore, it isthe cantact cover that is immediately accesible to soil macro corganisms and ean timate thie asivity, Thus, greater numbers of biopore are likely to be formed in association with cover crops, leling to more rapid water infiltration and movement within the soil “This is why the removal of vegetative cover from the soil and major disturbance such as tillage or the incorporation of residues, mulches or other organic matter,
Trang 35uegnuedsnlsud su tmaogcmenl lo onlsnl dnrlgpmene drastically reduces these postive effect, lesving the hare soil vinerble tothe inmpact ‘of raindrops, andthe consequent roll and erosion
‘SOIL AND WATER MANAGEMENT IN VINEYARDS Tntegeated soil and water management plays a key role in achieving long-term susiinable and profitable vineyard production, which safeguards the environment and ensures high-quality product Recent experiments have shown that appropriate Soil and water management reduces excessive use of external inputs, protecting sil stractore, porosicy and quality for evap veld and resulting in improved sil fri: The nutritional satus of 2 vineyand can have a stor organoleptic characteristics of Wine Âm contrast, conventional soil management in vineyards has a negative effce on the environment Inderd it promotes contamination wich chemical residues, the, rnicroflora and microfauna by reducing both the numberof species and their biomass, reduces organie matter cantent and promates soil compaction Continuans tillage ‘sing conventional cultivation techniques can give ese toa loss of organi mater an, as result, can substanvally reduce sol fersty and the ability of the soil 10 supply ‘nutrients, Large amounts of ferlizer are necded to compensate for the loss of these rutrients and the quality of te final produet ean be scarce with consequent reluced ‘income Greater quantities of chemicals are alo aeded because of severe disease tacks in vineyards managed with soil lage Soil compaction, poor aeration and gaseous exchange rates limit the movement and storage of water, reduce oxpanie matter cycling, sestct coor growth (reduce sol cđepthl and reduce ferilizr efficiencies either plat roots cannot reach the Feri or the applied nutrients remain locked-ap in the compacted soil because of reduced soil water dynamics The result i weak plant growth and a lack of vigour, influence an the chemical and
‘Matching soil conditions with plant indicators Good root penetration i needed for alequate water uptake I ean be limited by soil ‘compaction, ineressed mechanical resistance, ard zeluced and noin-interconnecte sil aeration Furthermore, increased mechanical resistance limits plant uptake of nuttin, igeetly reduces fertilizer efficiencies and increases the suscepiblty ofthe plant to root diseases Thus, soil conditions, moisture availability and cultural practices playa key role in determining root growth
‘Shoot length, number of buds and plant health ate influenced by the physicl- chemiel fenulity of soi For example, laf colour is related strictly to water and tutrient availabilty and especially to nitrogen content — the better the soil fertility the greener the leat The number of flowers is related soil physical stars: is intensity depends on energy and plaut-avalable carbohydrates, which relate in part, to sil fertility (physical, chemical and microbiological, Shoot length i an expression of plant vigour and general plant growth, which ae regulated by nutrient and eater availabilty: Morcover although flower development st budding is influenced in past by climate conditions and the amount of stored reserve, it depends considerably on soil conditions and eoot functionality Diseases, expecially Botrytis bunch rot, which is caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea, can cause seriovs losses on susceptible grape varieties Berries of white calivars become brown and dried-up, and those of purple euluivars develop a reddish colour Under high selative humidity and moisture, infected berries usually become ‘covered with a grey growth of fungus mycelium Disease attack sccms to be more common in vineyards managed with soil eilage eather than i those with permanent over crops Indeed soil health in vineyards i also elated ta microbial populations ‘apable af suppressing sei-borne disease Microbes thar vein the plan rhizosphere,
Trang 36The role od importance [ tuagteteval2nd ưt nưongemem for onched develope
the surrounding sol influenced directly by the root, can contribute to sol-disease suppressiveness, ducing the eect of many soil-borne diseases Disease control by rhizosphere microbial communities has also been shown 20 ‘extend f0 systemic and foliar diseases through the activation of the chemical and physical defence mechanisms of the plant Sol-disease uppresiveness may be induced ‘by cultural practices that increase sil organie matter (SOM), increasing che biodiversity ‘of the soil and the competitive ability of the indigenous microbial community on the root, Continaous plant covers such a¢ permanent svards increase SOM, leiding to
improved soil microbial stivity and biodiversity
‘The effects of cover crops in vineyards Cover eroppiny, not only aids in reducing soil erosion and water runoff, but also in suppressing sail-borne disease hy: incteasing the micto-organism biodiversiey; improving sol physical characteristics and particle aggregation; enviching the organic matter content and eeicing morgane fertilization and root morality ‘One of the limiting factors of cover crops in vineyards is the competition for mineral and water availabilty where the management is inadequate, These phenamens determine deep modifications of the nitrogen content of the wine with effets on the alcoholic fermentation, To solve this problem, diferent mixes of eovererops, inching, leguminous species that supply siteogen, should be evaluated in differat sees Ta reduce competition, cover crops or natural weeds ean be controlled by herbiside appliction or by cutting 2-3 times during the period of major nutrient seatcity:
Production costs of vineyards
(Continuous tillage using conventional cultivation techniques can give rise to a loss of fonganic matter and, a8 3 res, can substantially reduce sol ferlity and the silty of the soil to supply notrents Large amounts of feriizes aze needed to compensate forthe loss of these autiens, and she quality of the final product can be scan consequent lower income, Greater amounts of chemicals are also needed because of severe disease atack in vineyards managed wih sll lage
50IL AND WATER MANAGEMENT IN OLIVE ORCHARDS
High-yilding olive troes develop bids of optimal length, promote flowerbud induction, give a good percentage of fruiting, and stimulate frit development Hence, maintaining good availability of waer, nutrients and carbohydrates during the crap ele is essential to avoid any shortfall n bud Formation Good soil-managemtent practices are needed to improve olive growth and productiviey by providing adequate mutriens and water to the plant The soil has fo maintain 2 good structure, allowing coats to explore a constant volume, The soil should be well aerated, with regulated ratios of water and soil water: not too much ‘water to induce etosion and seaterlogeing, and not 100 lite to safeguard the olive te functionality, especially during the crucial peviods of plant development and fructfication
‘Matching soil conditions with plant indicators
Trang 37Fa tepated si and water managerent for orchard development Plant sigoue influences root development considersbly, However, soil conditions and culvation practices play a key vole in determining root growth Farthesmar Sncreased mechanical resistancelinits plan uptake of auriens, greatly reduces Fertilizer efficiencies, and increases the suscepeibiliy ofthe plant to root diseases Compaction sad consolidation of the soil at roorzone level increase mechanical resistance and impede sol aration, Good root penetration is needed for adequate water upake and ‘would be limited by sol compaction, mechanical resistance and impeding soil zeration, Fonhermore, incressed mechanical resistance limit plant uptake of mtrients, restricts ‘the production of several plant hormones in roots, greatly reduces fertilizer efficiencies, and inerease the susceptibility ofthe plant to root diseases Ta olive orchaeds, shoot length, sumber af buds and plane health are influenced by the physical-chenical fertility ofthe soil The presence of large numbers of flowers is good indicator of potentially large yields Flower induetion starts the year preceding ‘olive production Its intensity depends on energy and carbolydrate availability and the resence of specific hormones necessary to drive the bud apex toward inflorescence production, Carbohydeate availability depends on climate conditions, varies, and Siseases, bt also on water and nutrient amount and physical status ofthe soil Once gain, sil erty (physial, chemical and microbialogial conditions) is crucial to detecmizing enhanced plant productivity Root rot caused by dymillaris melles isthe one of the most serious disease and results in more-or-less rapid tee decline, Symptons of cis raot roto above-ground parts ofthe plant generally appear as stunting, yellowing, or browning leaves, which ‘ay drop, Roots infected with Armillris melee have white to yellowish fan shaped :mycelyal mats between the bark and the wood, Dark brown to black rhizomorphs can sometimes be seen onthe root surfee Poor sil aeration, high level of sol saturation, nd high mechanieal resistance to root development caused by soil-sructueal ‘deyeadation inerease root-rot pathogens
Effect of cover crops on olive production
Cover cropping is the most suitable soil management practice to protect the soil surfse from erosion, to preserve the enviroment, to reduce production costs, nd to enhance the quality of olive oi However, cover crops could compete with olive wees foe minerals, water and fertilizer if they are not well managed Inthe ceotre-south of Italy, in the absence of iergation during the hottest months, competion for water could occur during flowering, fruit formation and development, so limiting the tinal yield, To avoid this competition, 2 temporary cover crop oF natural vegetation can be grown from September to April, which isthe wettest period, and can be controlled during the hottest period by herbicide application or 2-3 cuttings, ‘An alternative method involves one or 1w0 hoeings during che hot period This facilitates natural wesd eavering and could be ststctory in limiting the competion for water The cultivation should be no more chan 10cm deep, so as not to damage the oot system, hence modifying the canopy/coot rate with reduced vigour and erop yield Moreover hocing can be useful for incorporating organic 2nd mineral fertilizer ss wells controling diseases caused by fog and bacteria living inthe sol
Production costs of olive orchards
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Continvous cropping using conventional eukvation techniques ean increase losses ‘organic matter and, a 2 result, can substantially reduce soil feriity snd the ability of the soll to supply nutrients Large amounts of fertilizer are needed to compensate for the los of these natrients Realuctons in cop yield ae often nt cesognized asthe cesult ofthe degradation of soil structure Growers often assume that plane nutetion is at fault ad increase cheb production costs by applying extra amount of ferlizers
PROMOTING INTEGRATED SOIL AND WATER MANAGEMENT
Experience indicates that farmers are willing to invest in land management and crop iaerventions where the esonomie reeorns are adequate Local people will undertake thie own planning of investments, and have access to external financial support in cash, kind or ther forms to implement those plans Monitoring methods will be put jn place both to inform the communities’ own lexrning proces, and ta document progres towards achieving the expected rests Implementing a programme to promote integrated oil and water management n orchards requires that governments mandate soil cover and no-il oe provide financial incentives co farmers The European Union has lage subsidy programme co preserve soil quality The debate as 10 whether careent funding is sufficient © pay for soil restoration isl in a preliminary stage, Incentives and subsidy programmes ‘ust be consistent and long-lived because soil productivity gins are sail reversed Creative policies that combine short- an long-term incentives, extension programmes, celucation, znd ehanges in public norms will be required Aid programmes should place far greater emphasis om subsidizing snd providing technical and other assistance for soil restoration Asan option that wins globally and locally, adoption of mo-il arming deserves attention now
REFERENCES
MeGatey D 2001 Tile and sil compacton n Prac Lt Worl! Congres on Conservation Agculeure, Madi, Spun, 1-8 Octuber 2001, Vole : Keynte Speaker, pp 281-291 [MeCiacey D 200, Sod compaction i long-term no-tilge tn Pe 2nd World Congres Conservation Agriculture, Foz do fgaeu, Brazil [1-15 Aggust 2003, Volume I: Revnote
Trang 39Comparative assessment of practices and their effects using a soil visual
assessment
INTRODUCTION
Trang 40” negated il and ter management frorbend decelopment
0
Methods used to describe and evaluate the physical condition of soln the field Dine ied assessment of sil physical condition: Baty
The visual assessment of soi strut ia the fel (he Pecthamp Seale): Baty SOlLpak method for assessment of sil condone: D.C, Meken
‘A guide tillage management bsed on surface sil types: Laws, B Morphy and I, Packer Visual sil asesent (VSA}.G Shepherd Sil Quality Management System (SQM): M Bese Le profil cultura: Morphologia! characteriation of cultivated stractre atthe field scale H.Boizard, G Richard snd J Roger Earsde
Sil quality scoring procure: B.C Bal and JT Douglas ‘Visual ol suesument~ spa analyst LIK Munlhola,
Avsesent of sil structure by vital elasifiation of agereites: Weiskopl
Visualse your sol (BIZ) ~ fom observation to management: CJ Koopmans, J Bokhorst and E.Heme, capture the condition of and trend in (and extent and ramifications of) sil degradation, ‘organic matter and soil biota (both aatuel/inherent and anthropogenic) in cropping, igrizing and woodlands, worldwide
METHODS
“The SVA system gi inthe development phass, However the general sim sv compile "field test kit” for use by farmers “on-farm” The system has two level of methods and tests, The first set isthe "core” tests of the system Depending on time, budget, sailability of apparatus and operator skills allo selected measues from the second set ‘of tests should also be conducted le will be essential so establish a firm lnk beeween the SSVA seores from the fest set of methods and the quantified data from the second set Ik is envisaged cha the test kit will consist of procedures and apparatus to qualify and score ‘soil structure size, type and grade (eg “weak crumb “strong plary™ and
massive"),
soil porosity size, type and ioteasiry,
‘sol texture (eg clay, sandy loam, and loamy clay), oil depths (of visible layers, expecially degraded layers), soil colour
Inaddition, ast of simple yet scientifically based” measures willbe included in the kit The eos ofthe necessary components for these tests will determine uses’ choice ‘of tests included inthis pe of the ht “The measurement apparatus and instructions wil concer:
‘wate infiltration,
sil organic matter status (especially labile carbon) (Weil et 2003), soil biota (earthworm counts per unit volume),
sil slaking and dispersion (Field, MeKenzie and Koppi, 1997),