188 Helena Wudi’s generals also campaigned in the South, Southwest, and Korea The major obstacles to expansion to the south were terrain and climate Between 112 and 111 b.c.e Han forces totaling 100,000 men subdued the Nanyue (Nan-yueh) along the southern coast to the Red River valley Other armies subdued aboriginal peoples in Yunnan, Sichuan (Szechwan), and Hainan Island The lands annexed as a result formed nine commanderies across modern Guangdong (Kuangtung), Guangxi (Kuanghsi), Yunnan, Sichuan, and Hainan Provinces, and northern Vietnam In 109 b.c.e a 50,000-man army marched to Korea, conquering the northern part of the peninsula, adding four more commanderies The campaigns expanded the empire and made it more secure, but at a huge human and financial cost The treasury was emptied, resulting in new taxes and state monopolies over iron, salt, and liquor to raise revenue These measures led to widespread discontent DOMESTIC POLICY Wudi’s reign was also important for other achievements He systematized the recruitment of civil servants based on examinations and established a state university to train candidates Their curriculum was based on the philosophy of Confucius under standardized interpretation He also created many commanderies under direct central government control and dramatically reduced the land under the feudal princes and lords and their power He also established vassal states and dependencies in areas with tribal (non-Chinese populations) that became standard practice for subsequent Chinese government’s dealings with frontier peoples He adopted rituals and ceremonies of state that also became standard for subsequent dynasties Wudi took an active role in measures to control floods along the Yellow River, supervised the settlement of people in conquered lands, and sponsored large caravans for trade with western lands DYNASTIC CRISES Ironically, Wudi’s inability to control his wives and consorts led to dynastic crises His first wife, Empress Chen (Ch’en), had no son, and their daughter was found practicing witchcraft against her father, leading to Empress Chen’s demotion Several of his consorts were also later accused of practicing witchcraft that led to witch hunts, trials, and executions In a superstitious age witchcraft was a feared crime His second wife, Empress Wei (her brothers were powerful generals) and her son, the crown prince, staged a coup against him in 91 b.c.e that led to fighting between the Wei family and the Li family, rela- tives of a powerful consort It failed, and the empress and crown prince were forced to commit suicide In 87 b.c.e., when gravely ill, he appointed an eight-yearold son by a consort named Lady Zhao (Chao) crown prince because she had no powerful relatives She soon died, rumored murdered The personality of Wudi remains an enigma Despite some personal and policy failings, he is one of the most powerful monarchs in Chinese history See also Han dynasty Further reading: Gale, Esson M., trans Discourse on Salt and Iron: A Debate on State Control of Commerce and Industry in Ancient China Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1931; Kierman, Frank A., and John K Fairbank, eds Chinese Ways in Warfare Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971; Loewe, Michael Crisis and Conflict in Han China, 104 B.C to A.D London: George Allen and Unwin, 1974; Twitchett, Denis, and Michael Loewe, eds The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1, The Ch’in and Han Empires, 221 B.C.–A.D 220 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986 Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur Helena (c 255–c 330 c.e.) ruler, saint, emperor’s mother Helena was the mother of Constantine the Great She was born of humble estate at Drepanum in Bithynia According to Ambrose, the early church bishop, she was a simple innkeeper She married Constantius Chlorus, a soldier, by whom she bore Constantine (c 274 c.e.) Later, Constantius divorced Helena in order to enter into a more politically advantageous marriage The son, however, did not forget his mother, and when Constantine became emperor in 306 c.e., he had her raised to a place of honor, which culminated in the title of Augusta (emperor’s mother) Constantine also renamed the place of her birth Helenopolis in her honor According to the early church historian Eusebius, Helena’s conversion to Christianity was due to the influence of her son; but Theodoret’s more credible account is that the mother nurtured in her son openness to the faith Nonetheless, she bore religious stature and sanctity in her own right and had remarkable influence on her son Constantine had his second wife, Fausta, and their son Crispus executed His mother had acted not in support of her daughter-in-law but rather had been involved in bringing about her downfall