454 Zho Zongtang (Tso Tsung-t’ang) and implementing reforms and adopting Western learning and technologies See also Gong (K’ung), Prince Further reading: Hail, William J Tseng Kuo-fan and the Taiping Rebellion, With a Short Sketch of His Later Career New York: Paragon Book Reprint Corp, 1964; Wright, Mary C The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism: The T’ung-chih Restoration, 1862–1874 Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1957 Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur Zho Zongtang (Tso Tsung-t’ang) (1812–1885) Chinese military leader and statesman Zho Zongtang was from a scholarly family of moderate means in Hunan Province He obtained the juren (chu-jen) degree, the second highest in the examination system, then studied geography, agriculture and military strategy and experimented in farming, specializing in sericulture Between 1852 until his death he devoted himself to military affairs, winning high distinction in serving China In 1860 Zho joined the staff of Zeng Guofan (Tseng Kuo-fan), China’s leader in fighting the Taiping Rebellion, raising and training 5,000 volunteers of his native Hunan braves to serve in Jiangxi (Kiangsi) and Anhui Provinces, engaging in more than 20 battles He was appointed governor-general of Zhejiang (Chekiang) and Fujian (Fukien) Provinces, expelling the Taiping rebels from both and implementing programs that restored prosperity They included opening schools, printing offices, and promoting sericulture and cotton culture After the suppression of the Taiping Rebellion, Zho was appointed governorgeneral of Shaanxi (Shensi) and Gansu (Kansu) Provinces in northwestern China He collaborated with his colleagues Zeng Kuofan and Li Hongzhang (Li Hung-chang) in first putting down the Nian Rebellion, then undertaking the suppression of the Muslim rebellions, first pacifying Shaanxi in 1869, followed by bringing peace to Gansu in 1874 He then made important reforms in those provinces that included the prohibition of opium poppy culture, promoting cotton growing and manufacture of cotton and woolen cloths, utilizing the spare time of his soldiers in agriculture and reforestation Zho next obtained court support for raising loans for the reconquest of Xinjiang (Sinkiang) or Chinese Turkestan, much of which had been under the control of Yakub Beg, a Muslim who curried favor with Russia, Great Britain, and the Ottoman Empire by promising them influence should he succeed in establishing an independent state A careful campaigner who had sure knowledge of geography and logistics, Zho defeated the Xinjiang Muslims in 1877 Yakub committed suicide The combination of the collapse of the Xinjiang Muslim rebellion thanks to Zho’s generalship and the negotiation skills of Chinese diplomat Zeng Jize (Chitse) (son of Zeng Guofan), Russia agreed to withdraw its troops from the Ili Valley in Xinjiang in the Treaty of St Petersburg in 1881 Xinjiang became a province of China in 1884 Zho was appointed governorgeneral of Jiangnan (Kiangnan) and Jiangxi (Kiangsi) in 1882, was put in charge of military affairs when war loomed with France in 1884, but he was suffering from ill health and died shortly after Zho was a great military leader of the Tongzhi (T’ung-chih) Restoration and Self-Strengthening Movement who struggled successfully to defeat China’s domestic rebellions and protect its territorial integrity against Western imperialism Both he and his wife, Zhou Yituan (Chou I-tuan), were accomplished in literature, she leaving published collections of verses, and he of official and literary works See also Qing (Ch’ing) dynasty in decline Further reading: Fairbank, John K., and Kwang-ching Liu, eds The Cambridge History of China, Vol 11, Part 2, Late Ch’ing, 1800–1911 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980; Hummel, Arthur W., ed Eminent Chinese of the Ch’ing Period (1644–1912) Washington, DC: U.S Government Printing Press, 1944 Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur Zionism and Theodor Herzl (1860–1904) father of Jewish nationalism Theodor Herzl is considered the father of modern Zionism, or Jewish nationalism Born in Budapest, Hungary, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Herzl attended university in Vienna As a young journalist, he covered the Dreyfus affair in Paris This noted case of anti-Semitism in liberal France, coupled with the periodic violent pogroms against Jews in eastern Europe and Russia, convinced Herzl that anti-Semitism was an inherent evil in Western civilization He concluded that the only solution to the so-called Jewish