Brahmo and Arya Samaj and the soldiers Most soldiers refused to fire on the crowd Charles X, having no desire to go to the guillotine, quickly abdicated and sought refuge, for the second time in his life, in England The marquis de Lafayette, who had played important roles in both the American Revolution and the French Revolution, found a solution to the political crisis Using his still immense popularity, he offered the French people to replace Charles X with Louis-Philippe, the duc d’Orléans, who had fought with the armies of the French Revolution With the promise that the duc d’Orléans would respect the charter of 1814, the Chamber of Deputies offered him the crown on August 7, 1830 Louis-Philippe would now rule France as the “citizen king.” See also Latin America, Bourbon reforms in Further reading: Brinton, Crane The Anatomy of Revolution New York: Vintage, 1965; Cobban, Alfred A History of Modern France: Vol 1, Old Regime and Revolution 1715–1799 New York: Penguin, 1991; Cronin, Vincent Napoleon Bonaparte: An Intimate Biography New York: William Morrow, 1972; Lefebvre, Georges The French Revolution New York: Columbia University Press, 1962; ——— , and Henry F Stockhold Napoleon New York: Columbia University Press, 1990; Palmer, R R Twelve Who Ruled Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970; ———, and Joel L Colton A History of the Modern World New York: Knopf, 1971 John F Murphy, Jr Brahmo and Arya Samaj The Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj were two important institutions that developed in 19th-century India against existing social practices The impact of the West resulted in a social and cultural renaissance in India To regenerate society, it was felt that modern sciences and ideas of reason were essential Ram Mohan Roy, occupying a pivotal position in the awakening, was the founder of Brahmo Sabha in 1828, which was known as Brahmo Samaj afterward Roy was an enlightened thinker and well versed in Sanskrit, English, and Arabic An accomplished Vedic scholar, he was also a great admirer of Jesus Christ Roy wanted to bring reform to Hindu society, which had become stagnant Evils like the sati (suttee) system of self-emolation of widows, child marriage, polygamy, and other social ills had crept in The goal of the 59 Brahmo Samaj was to rid Hindu society of evils and to practice monotheism Incorporating the best teachings of other religions, it aimed at a society based on reason and the Vedas A golden age in Vedic society had begun Rajnarain Bose, Debendranath Tagore, and Keshab Chandra Sen enriched the Samaj through inculcation of novel ideas that aimed at reforming Hindu religion and society Bose used the Hindu scriptures like the Vedas, Upanishads, and the Bhagavad Gita as the holy books of the Hindus Debendranath Tagore, the father of Rabindranath Tagore, revived the Brahmo Samaj, which had become dormant after Roy’s death in 1843 He established the branches of the Samaj and spoke out against idol worship, pilgrimages, and rituals of Hindu society Membership of the Samaj continued to rise; from six in 1829 to 2,000 after 1835 Starting in Bengal, it spread to different parts of India But a schism developed, as Debendranath and the older generation did not like the radical ideas of Sen, who formed the Brahmo Samaj of India in 1866 The older organization was called the Adi (original) Brahmo Samaj EMANCIPATION OF HINDU WOMEN The crusade of the Brahmo Samaj resulted in the emancipation of Hindu women within the fold of the Samaj The British government passed the Civil Marriage Act in 1872, prohibiting child marriage and polygamy, as well as the abolition of caste distinctions When Sen violated this act at the time of his daughter’s marriage, there was another split in the Brahmo Samaj of India in 1878 with the formation of Sadharana (Common) Brahmo Samaj by Ananda Mohan Bose and others The Brahmo Samaj had done laudable work in the field of education The urban elite of West and South India came under its spell It remained a sort of guiding spirit for reformed Hindu society At the time of World War I, it had 232 branches in major cities of South and Southeast Asia Apart from the Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore, the Congress presidents and nationalist leaders like Surendranath Banerji and Bipin Chandra Pal were members in the 19th century Swami Dayananda Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj in the colonial city of Bombay in 1875, but its growth came in the Punjab after the establishment of Lahore Arya Samaj three years later It grew rapidly in different parts of India, with provincial braches in Uttar Pradesh (1886), Rajasthan (1888), Bengal (1889), and Madhya Pradesh (1889) It also spread to the British Empire outside of India, especially in South