agriculture: introduction FURTHER READING Cyril Aldred, Jewels of the Pharaohs (London: Thames and Hudson, 1978) Sue Blundell, Women in Ancient Greece (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995) Richard Corson, Fashions in Makeup: From Ancient to Modern Times (London: Peter Owen Publishers, 2004) Antonio d’Ambrosio, Women and Beauty in Pompeii (Los Angeles: J Paul Getty Museum, 2001) Mikhal Dayagi-Medeles, Perfumes and Cosmetics in the Ancient World (Jersusalem: Israel Museum, 1989) Giuseppe Donato and Monique Seefried, The Fragrant Past: Perfumes of Cleopatra and Julius Caesar (Rome: Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, 1989) Bernard Fagg, Nok Terracottas (Lagos: Nigerian Museum/London: Ethongraphica, 1977) Joann Fletcher, Oils and Perfumes of Ancient Egypt (New York: Harry N Abrams, 1999) Mary G Houston, Ancient Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Persian Costume (Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications, 2002) Julie Jones, ed., Jade in Ancient Costa Rica (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1998) Mary Ellen Miller, The Art of Mesoamerica: From Olmec to Aztec, 3rd ed (London: Thames and Hudson, 2001) Anne Paul, Paracas Ritual Attire: Symbols of Authority in Ancient Peru (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990) Clare Phillips, Jewelry: From Antiquity to the Present (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1996) Elizabeth Riefstahl, Toilet Articles from Ancient Egypt (Brooklyn: Brooklyn Museum, 1943) Phyllis G Tortora and Keith Eubank, Survey of Historic Costume: A History of Western Dress (New York: Fairchild Publications, 1994) Monica Blackmun Visoná, Robin Poyner, Herbert M Cole, et al., A History of Art in Africa (New York: Abrams, 2001) Alix Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptian Jewellery (London: Methuen, 1971) ▶ agriculture introduction For most of human history people survived as hunter-gatherers Hunter-gatherers fed themselves by hunting game, including fish, seafood, and birds (as well as birds’ eggs) and by foraging for plant foods that grow wild, including fruits, berries, roots, leafy vegetables, rice, grains, and the like Huntergatherers lived in small nomadic bands, meaning that they moved from place to place in search of food, especially as the seasons and weather conditions changed Because the ancient world was sparsely populated, hunting and gathering were successful ways of finding food much of the time Populations did not have to compete with one another for territory and the foodstuffs it might contain Further, the food supplies of a territory usually did not run out because of too much consumption; if they did, the band of people could simply move on to another territory 15 As the world became more populated, however, it became less and less practical for roving bands of hunter-gatherers to move about at will One band of hunter-gatherers often found itself in competition with another for food, leading to conflict Growing numbers of people meant that food supplies in a territory could quickly become used up Furthermore, hunting and gathering were extremely uncertain ways to obtain food Early peoples were dependent on what they could find when they could find it, but such factors as drought, monsoon rains, and temperature extremes made the availability of food supplies inconsistent over time Furthermore, early hunter-gatherers had no way of storing and preserving food The result was often famine and starvation A major development in the history of humankind was the advent of agriculture—not just as a way of providing food but as a way of life In roughly 7000 to 6000 b.c.e humans began to trade their lives as hunters and gatherers for the more settled life of agriculturalists, though hunting and gathering did not disappear By learning to plant, cultivate, harvest, and store crops, particularly important crops such as wheat, barley, and legumes (beans), people could provide themselves with a greater variety of food They were no longer dependent entirely on what was locally available at a given time but could supplement their diets with other plant foods as well as with animal foods, such as goats, sheep, cattle, chickens, and, in some parts of the world, dogs Additionally, they could make use of by-products from agriculture for other purposes The straw left over in the fields after a grain crop was harvested was used to give strength to mud bricks used in the construction of homes Hides could be used for their leather, and such animals as sheep could be sheared to provide clothing, fabrics, and similar goods Domesticated animals provided manure used to fertilize fields; in the case of sheep, goats, and cattle they also supplied milk In turn, milk could be used to make cheese and butter Chickens and other fowl provided meat and eggs as well as feathers that could be used in such items as bedding Little went to waste on an ancient farm Agriculture enabled people to store and preserve food for the lean times In such places as ancient Egypt, for example, farmers were able to grow a year’s worth of grain, perhaps more, which then could be stored throughout the year and distributed to people as it was needed This ability to store and preserve food evened out many of the ups and downs of food availability, reducing the threat of famine and starvation The result was longer life expectancies, improved health, and the growth of populations Adding to population growth was the fact that women, no longer having to move about in search of food, could bear and raise more children, who then were able to provide labor in the fields Perhaps most important, agriculture resulted in a more sedentary way of life In modern times, the word sedentary has a negative connotation It implies lack of physical activity, perhaps to the point of laziness Historians, though, use the word to refer to settled cultures that did not move about as