war and conquest: Greece 1145 eventually withdrew back into Gaul Arminius became chief of his tribe and a war leader of several tribes He was assassinated by relatives in 21 c.e GREECE BY MICHAEL M SAGE Warfare in ancient Greece, though it changed over time, always spanned the full range of possibilities from small-scale raiding to full-scale pitched battles As the most dangerous of activities, it was marked by formal declarations, special religious rites, and a number of symbolic acts whose character changed over time, such as the erection of battlefield trophies, thanksgiving and victory sacrifices, and the use of special burial rites for the fallen Early Greek warfare tended to pursue restricted goals City-state governments remained relatively simple and lacked the means to control large blocks of territory Hoplite warfare focused on gaining control of the enemy’s agricultural land, and normally that was enough to bring victory Greek arms and tactics were not well suited to siege warfare, which was the only way to achieve complete victory For the most part, warfare centered on boundary disputes, raids, and in certain cases, hereditary feuds It is difficult to gauge the frequency of organized warfare The absence of sources makes any estimate impossible from the Mycenaean Period (ca 1600–ca 1150 b.c.e.) until the fift h century b.c.e For the period from 500 to 338 b.c.e Athens was at war two out of every three years However, no comparable figures exist for other Greek states, and Athens was a special case In all periods warfare on any scale is the most costly of activities, and Athens during this period had resources not available to most Greek states Sources give the impression that warfare was common until the imposition of Roman domination in the mid-second century b.c.e For the period after 400 b.c.e there is scattered evidence in the form of inscriptions for frequent warfare among smaller communities in Crete and elsewhere ATTITUDES ABOUT WAR The attitude of the Greeks toward warfare was, as is the case for most societies, ambivalent On one hand, war was recognized as an evil The historian Herodotus (ca 484–between 430 and 420 b.c.e.) blames war for overturning the natural order of things: “In peace, sons bury their fathers In war, fathers bury their sons.” In his Laws, Plato (ca 428–348 or 347 b.c.e.) asserts that that we should pray to be spared from war and civil strife and that no man can be a true statesman unless he prepares for war only as a means to peace Despite the misery it brought, war could also be viewed as desirable The earliest Greek literature that we possess, the Iliad and the Odyssey, composed by Homer (ninth–eighth? century b.c.e.), suggests that excellence as a warrior is a man’s most important quality The growth of the city-state, which consisted of an urban core with its dependent towns and village, Bust of a warrior known as Leonidas (Alison Frantz Photographic Collection, American School of Classical Studies at Athens) and the associated stress on the importance of the community, altered this “heroic code.” The emphasis shifted to a warrior’s contribution to his city in battle, but the significance attached to an individual’s prowess in battle remained the same Warfare also had more tangible attractions The normal Greek view was that the conquered and their possessions passed into the hands of the victor and were his to dispose of as he pleased Slaves brought the highest profit, but other items, such as personal valuables or temple treasures, also brought wealth It was the capture of cities and temples that gave the greatest returns In politics war always remained an option and was pursued when it offered some advantage, especially among the more powerful states There was a change in the fourth