crafts: Rome Hermes, usually placed at house gates or as a marker on roads An impressive finding is the wooden xoanon, a simple statue, from the island of Samos, dating to the seventh century b.c.e Xoanons were cult objects venerated for the deities that they represented Only a very small number of these fragile statues survive, mostly from waterlogged sites that preserved the wood A variety of materials were used for the construction of furniture throughout the centuries Homer (ca 900–800? b.c.e.) describes bedsteads, chairs, and footstools with inlays of gold, silver, and ivory in the palaces of Mycenae Marble and stone thrones were reported, and their remains were discovered at the palaces of Knossos, in Crete, and at the palace of Pylos Less-durable materials were used during the Classical Period, and so our knowledge of Classical Period furniture and cabinetry comes mainly from written descriptions and representations in art Already by the sixth century b.c.e carving wood on a lathe, a technique called turning, was introduced and, together with curving techniques, enabled skilled craftsmen to construct a variety of forms, the principle ones being the klismós (chair), a light construction for domestic use, without arms; the threenýs (footstool), in various shapes and sizes; the thrónos (throne), a more elaborate high-backed chair for special occasions; the trápeza (table), small in size, oblong or circular; the cline (couch), used for sleeping as well as for reclining upon during banquets; and the lárnax (chest), for storing clothes and bedding 293 parts of bridles for horses, and weapons; bronze pieces for utensils, pots, pans, and chamber pots; and copper and tin pieces for cups and bowls Almost any man who was not rich had to know how to hammer copper sheets into basic tools Thus, blacksmiths learned to make complex and specialized metal objects that ordinary people could not make They seldom smelted their ore themselves, instead purchasing ingots Metal was usually smelted near where it was mined, using kilns designed to make a powerful updraft of air that provided the oxygen needed for high heat Blacksmiths often enhanced the metal they received by reworking it with hammering and heat For example, they could toughen iron by softening it with heat, mixing it with carbon from charcoal, and then hammering it, turning and folding it on itself, hammering again, and so on until it was several compressed layers of iron mixed with carbon Blacksmiths were often specialists in one kind of metal or even in one kind of tool, such as medical instruments Although they worked their ingots with large tongs and hammers, they used small hammers of different sizes and shapes, as well as pliers of varying sizes, to shape and squeeze their metal Some stonemasons worked in the actual rock quarries They used metal tools to carve out stones of the shape and size they wanted They took such care in this work that when the stones were removed from the quarry, they needed little further dressing They used metal hammers, chisels, and picks, ROME BY KIRK H BEETZ In Roman society there were senators, knights, members of the third estate (or common people), and slaves Craftspeople were either members of the third estate or slaves They tended to form guilds, but guilds were not meant to protect their members or to set standards of workmanship Instead, they were intended to be meeting places where members could gather and mix comfortably together, without worrying about paying the required courtesies to members of the upper classes Although one might find a guild in a Roman city or town that encompassed all the area’s metalworkers, it was more likely that there would be separate guilds for those who worked in copper, tin, bronze, brass, or iron A single guild might take over an entire block in a city, with its members living in rooms behind or above their shops, but shops could be located almost anywhere in a city Craftspeople often rented ground-level rooms in other people’s homes As Rome grew in population, the demand for crafted goods increased Thus, over time, a few shops in a town could multiply into dozens, even hundreds Blacksmiths were found in every town and city and almost every village They not only made new items but also repaired old ones They often sat on low stools while they worked, using hammers to shape sheets of metal against a solid stone table They made iron pieces for joints on carts, Steatite vase (Alison Frantz Photographic Collection, American School of Classical Studies at Athens)