S ▶ sacred sites introduction Probably the first sacred sites were aspects of the natural world that people identified with the supernatural Large formations, such as big rock outcrops, mountains, lakes, and rivers, all could serve as impressive sources of spiritual power Mountains are imposing not only because of their size but also because they seem closer to the sky Many cultures have placed shrines or altars atop mountains in the belief that people could be better heard by gods when they were nearer the sky than when they were at the bases of mountains Rock outcrops often have the advantage of having faces on which sacred images could be painted or carved, allowing people to show in their images what is special about the sacred place Lakes and rivers frequently are associated with the life force, because water is believed to be part of the life force; after all, people quickly die without water Lakes and rivers were thought to have gods dwelling in them, and many ancient peoples made sacrifices to lakes and rivers in the hope of making the gods there happy or to persuade the gods to help with crops or wars A place in a dense forest where light cannot penetrate past the branches and leaves of trees could be construed as a place where forest spirits would gather or dwell Shrines in such places might not have survived if they were wooden or consisted of no more than the space among the trees, but historical records suggest that ancient cultures in Europe, Africa, Asia, and America had such places, where good and evil spirits were thought to dwell Sacred places can be associated with historical events or important people Where a special person received enlight- enment about the supernatural or spoke with spirits can become a holy place to which the faithful will make pilgrimages Shrines could be built to mark locations where a single religious leader received or proclaimed divine knowledge over his or her lifetime, with the shrines marking stations for religious pilgrimages of the followers of the religious leader or of the religion of which the religious leader’s revelations became a part The locations of great battles that were important sites in mythology sometimes were commemorated with altars, shrines, temples, or tombs There were so many such places that some ancient people wrote tour guides to the sacred sites Otherwise ordinary places could be made sacred by people One way was to deposit a sacred relic, such as a fragment of hair, bones, fingernail clippings, or a personal item worn or used by a sacred or holy person Great mounds could be built over the relics, or temples could be erected to house them Another way to make a place sacred was through ritual Sometimes ancient cities were made sacred and even objects of worship by depositing icons of gods in central temples or through ritual blessings of the cities Sometimes the ground on which a city was to be built was consecrated through rituals, making the new city a sacred place that was set apart from the ordinary world AFRICA BY ROBERT SHANAFELT Sacred sites in ancient Africa include special areas of the natural landscape such as mountains, caves, forests, and springs and human constructions such as mounds, tombs, and pyramids The continent contains some of the oldest sites in the 897