crafts: Europe Little is known of the crafts of the Asian islands and Oceania prior to 500 c.e., when Japanese metalwork becomes common Knowledge of metalworking was carried by Koreans to the Japanese Islands, perhaps in the 200s c.e., when the Japanese still used stone for most objects, even swords Basket weaving was quite likely important throughout southeastern Asia and the islands, but almost nothing is known about the weavers or their products EUROPE BY MICHAEL J O’NEAL Compared with the ancient empires of Greece, Persia, and Mesopotamia, Europe remained relatively undeveloped until the arrival of the Roman Empire in the first century b.c.e and, later, the advent of Christianity At the dawn of history much of Europe was covered with ice, so the population was sparse at best Only after the ice receded in about 8000 b.c.e did people move into the region, where they found fertile ground for crops and an abundance of game They survived purely by means of what they could raise and grow for their own use, settling in widely separated hamlets that consisted of low huts and barns for their livestock There the ancient Europeans developed crafts that made their lives at least slightly more comfortable Because the passage of time is kinder to stone than it is to other, less-durable materials, the archaeological record consists largely of examples showing that the ancient Europeans worked with stone to form such objects as tools (primarily for cutting), arrowheads, and spear points as well as pottery for food and water storage Less commonly found are examples of craft items made of ivory, bone, and wood In discussions of ancient European peoples the terms Celt and Celtic are often used In modern life these terms typically refer to the people of Ireland, but historians use the words more generally to refer to the peoples who migrated into Europe, probably about 3000 b.c.e., from the steppes of central Russia Early on they settled in Hungary and Romania, but in time they moved on to Italy, France, Switzerland, Germany, the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal), the Balkans, and Poland Later still, they settled the British Isles For centuries the Celts were the dominant people of the European continent The ancient Romans regarded the Celtic peoples to the north as crude “barbarians.” The Roman writer Polybius wrote, “Their lives were very simple, and they had no knowledge whatsoever of any art or science.” In fact, the Celts developed a great deal of sophisticated technology, including crafts production They became especially adept at metalwork, and one of their major achievements was the substitution of the more durable iron for bronze The ancient Celts invented such items as chain-mail body armor, the plowshare (that is, the plow’s blade), handsaws, and chisels, and they were the first people to put iron shoes on horses Tombs found throughout southern and eastern Europe contain large numbers of craft items, including cups, bowls, jewelry, helmets, horse gear, and 291 the like The famous Agris helmet, found in western France in 1980, is a magnificent piece made of iron with gold plating, silver rivets, and decorative stripes, along with inlay made of coral The ancient Celts were also skilled at leatherwork Archaeologists refer to two periods of Celtic dominance on the Continent The first is the Hallstatt Period (1200–500 b.c.e.), referring to a small town not far from Salzburg, Austria, which is still the site of huge salt mines The remains of a great many craft items have been found in the region, most of it relatively unsophisticated metalwork The other period was the La Tène, named after a metalworking site in Switzerland The La Tène began in 480 b.c.e and lasted until the Romans entered the picture in about c.e., and historians regard it as important because of the flowering of craftsmanship and technology in the region at this time One of the distinguishing characteristics of the La Tène culture was the use of a great deal of ornamentation and decoration on craft work, particularly metal Much of this ornamentation was based on plant and animal forms, though a lot consisted of purely geometric designs; it is believed that La Tène craftsmen used geometric compasses to inscribe decorative elements on their work In addition to iron the La Tène craftsmen worked extensively with gold and, to a lesser extent, silver Art historians identify three distinct styles of La Tène craft work One they refer to as the vegetal style, referring to the use of decorative plant motifs The second is the sword style, referring to sharply geometric designs inscribed on such items as sword scabbards The third is the plastic style, referring to the three-dimensional depiction of objects, primarily on jewelry The La Tène craftsmen were skilled not only at metalworking but also at “fired” crafts, that is, those that used fire in the making, such as inlay work, enameling, glass, and pottery Finally, some examples of woodwork survive Unused timbers of up to 40 feet long have been found, along with a variety of woodworking tools, including lathes, adzes, and saws La Tène woodworkers produced wooden bowls and turned tool handles on lathes, but their most noteworthy achievement was the construction of ships and land vehicles An important craft was that of the wheelwright, who constructed wheels made of wood that were then bound by iron “tires.” La Tène wheels were more soundly constructed and durable than any wheels the Roman Empire ever produced for its famous chariots The Celts were not the only cultural and linguistic group to occupy Europe In addition, various Germanic tribes dominated Scandinavia and northern Germany, including the Angles, Vandals, Burgundians, Danes, Norwegians, Goths, and Saxons The development of crafts among these Germanic tribes in many respects paralleled that of the Celts During the Bronze Age (2800–700 b.c.e.) the early Germanic tribes worked primarily with bronze, but later these tribes worked with iron Archaeological findings include pots and bowls, tools, and various ornamental items In the late centuries before the beginning of the Common Era, the Celts lost power on the Continent In