occupations: Asia and the Pacific In addition to the lists of professions, which were kept in scholarly libraries, a no less important source of information is provided by the vast amount of archival material This consists primarily of legal and administrative documents recorded and kept by the major economic institutions (palaces and temples) as well as by private individuals and families These archives of cuneiform tablets shed a great deal of light on the range of craftsmen and professionals and on their social backgrounds, the conditions under which they worked, and the way in which they were organized Lists of rations allotted to workers are particularly informative Occasionally, archaeological evidence for specialist workshops has been found, such as the remains of potters’ kilns The range of occupations established in the course of over 3,000 years of written history in the region is vast Some are familiar—baker, brewer, potter—but others arose as a response to the specific needs and material conditions of the day and have no close parallel in the 21st century Many essential crafts were passed down from father to son, but some skills were taught to apprentices by experts Cuneiform tablets recording apprenticeship contracts have survived, and they set out the penalty to be paid by the master if he failed to teach the apprentice properly (The possibility that the apprentice might be a poor learner does not seem to have been considered.) The palaces and temples employed large numbers of specialized craftsmen and skilled workers Food preparation was one of the most important areas of activity Bakers, cooks, butchers, and brewers were needed, and setting out the tables for the meals of the gods was a skilled occupation The grinding of flour was an onerous task often performed by prisoners Oil pressers produced the oil (from sesame seed) needed in food preparation and for other purposes, such as treating wooden objects, making perfume, and fi lling oil lamps The production of textiles and finished garments was another important craft activity Weavers worked in wool and linen, and a variety of garments had to be made up by specialist tailors, not just for human use but also to clothe the divine statues in the temples The cloth that they used could be dyed by the dyers in a variety of shades made from minerals and plants Evidence for washermen and washerwomen is also found, especially in the temple archives, since caring for the precious divine garments was vital Leather workers had to treat the skins of dead animals and manufacture items out of them, such as sandals and various kinds of containers Metalworkers manufactured the tools and utensils used in the everyday activities of agriculture and canal digging Goldsmiths, silversmiths, and jewelers produced finery for members of the elite and for adorning the statues of the gods in the temples Raw materials that were not available locally would be procured by merchants specializing in overland trade with distant regions Construction involved a variety of skilled occupations The design and layout of the great monumental structures, such as the ziggurats, palaces, and temples, not to mention the 811 defensive walls surrounding the cities, required highly skilled architects, surveyors, and site managers The ancient terms for these kinds of professions can be identified in the cuneiform tablets, though it is not always easy to determine the exact range of duties that went with each particular job In much of the region mud brick was used for building, though kiln-fired bricks were preferred for the more prestigious structures of palaces and temples Brick making was a skilled activity, but usually a seasonal one Carpenters and joiners were needed to manufacture the doors and other fittings and to prepare the beams used in making the roof Furniture is written about in the cuneiform tablets, and occasionally the remains of intricately made pieces have been found in excavation Usually, however, wooden items not survive, with the result that much information about craftsmanship has been lost In southern Mesopotamia, where reeds grew in abundance, they were widely used in construction and in the manufacturing of such household items as baskets and mats Specialist reed workers had to prepare the reeds by soaking, peeling, and bleaching them before they could be used Some structures were made from reed rather than brick, a building tradition that survived into modern times in the marshes of southern Iraq A great many people would have been employed in agriculture and animal husbandry In southern Mesopotamia orchard keepers were required to look after the date palm groves Throughout the region the cultivation of grain fields needed teams of plowmen to work with the ox-driven plows; these teams often operated in family groups, including children as young as five years old The occupations practiced by women are less well documented At certain periods women are known to have figured prominently in the textile industry Occasionally, women were employed to serve as wet nurses for children who had lost their mothers Women from wealthier families could own property and conduct business Priestesses are also known The army was vital in defending the land and conquering new territories; among the troops many specialized roles are known Finally, there were a number of professions open only to very learned individuals These men would have undergone lengthy training in the scribal schools before completing further, specialized training in a particular field Scholars at the royal court, such as astronomers, exorcists, physicians, and diviners, played an important role in advising the king This is especially well illustrated by a large group of letters from scholars to the Assyrian king Esarhaddon (r 680–669 b.c.e.), which have been found in excavations at the city of Nineveh alongside many other documents and literary works from the royal libraries ASIA AND THE PACIFIC BY KIRK H BEETZ The number of ancient Indian occupations can seem bewildering, with occupations often having numerous subcategories