278 clothing and footwear: Europe for ordinary people at work, but it was also used as an undergarment for occasions outside of work Perhaps the earliest garment known from India is the sari, which was in use by 3000 b.c.e It is a piece of cloth about 10 feet in length that is wrapped around the body in various patterns As fashion dictated, it could be tight or loose, and it could be wound in elegant patterns for special occasions or wound loosely to give freedom of movement for work It was made either from cotton or silk and was worn primarily by women Also ancient is the uttariya, worn by both men and women Perhaps as old as the sari, the uttariya was a scarf used to cover the upper body and could be made from bark, hides, or silk, though it was usually cotton Somewhat later the lungi developed This cloth, worn by both men and women, was wrapped around the waist and tucked in, resulting in a skirt that stopped above the knee for work and at the ankle for formal occasions It was usually made of cotton but was sometimes silk and more rarely wool Similar to the lungi was the dhoti, which probably developed before 1000 b.c.e Wrapped similarly to the lungi, the dhoti looked more like loose, short trousers that ended above the knee and was worn by both men and women These garments were typically worn alone, with women generally remaining bare-breasted in everyday life until the Muslim invasion For warmth Indians often wore the chadar, which predates 200 c.e and is still worn in modern times It was used mostly in northern India and was made of heavy cloth, usually cotton, about 10 feet long and feet wide and acted as a blanket or shawl that could give the upper body protection from the cold Another somewhat heavy garment was the purdah, imported from Assyria in about 1000 b.c.e It was adopted in some Hindu communities and was worn only by women, covering their entire bodies and restricting their movements It was intended to symbolize the loss of all social rights of women by making them nonentities By and large the Indians preferred freedom of movement and color in their clothing, and they preferred the same for their feet They began wearing jewelry on their feet before 2500 b.c.e but tended to be barefoot In the first century c.e., khapusa were invented They were knee-high boots worn in the mountains of northern India as protection from the cold, and they were probably a style imported from nomads in central Asia They tended to be made of animal hide and were decorated in colorful patterns In the 200s c.e chappals became common These were sandals made of animal hide, with straps over the big toe and the upper foot EUROPE BY AMY HACKNEY BLACKWELL Clothing in ancient Europe was simply made and functional Sewing and tailoring techniques were not advanced, and most people made their own clothing Most people across Europe dressed in simple tunics and untailored cloaks that varied in design according to regional climate Few ancient people had extensive wardrobes; many of them had one set of clothing and wore it day after day for months or years One of the earliest examples of European clothing is that worn by the well-preserved frozen body of a man found in 1991 in the Alps It was estimated that the man had died before 3000 b.c.e His entire ensemble was perfectly designed for keeping a person warm in the Alpine climate It contained no cloth at all, possibly because Europeans at that time did not make cloth The man wore deerskin moccasins attached to wooden frames that probably functioned as snowshoes Historians believe that the man may have stuffed hay into the shoes as insulation Above the shoes, fur leggings were tied with leather thongs The man wore a loincloth made of goat hide sewn into shape and fastened around the waist with a belt On his chest he wore a knee-length shirt made of goat hide that may or may not have had sleeves Over his shoulders he wore a cloak woven of grass His hat was made of brown bear skin and tied under the chin As they began to raise sheep and settle down in villages, people perfected techniques of making thread and weaving cloth Most Celtic and German clothing was made of wool Sheep thrived in the European climate, and Celtic people kept herds of them for meat, milk, and wool The Celts also made clothing of linen, much of which was imported from regions to the south Europeans occasionally used silk thread to embroider their garments with patterns such as meanders or swastikas (a symbol that had no racist meaning in ancient times) The silk probably came from China, and people may have unraveled old silk garments to use the thread The Celts who lived in Hallstatt, near Salzburg, Austria, between 1200 and 500 b.c.e practiced advanced weaving techniques They wove cloth in various patterns, including stripes, checks, and twills Archaeologists have found stamps that people may have used to decorate their clothing with dye By the time of the Roman Republic (510–27 b.c.e.) most Europeans were wearing cloth garments, with leather and fur pieces sometimes being added for warmth Few ancient Celtic or German garments have survived The Romans, however, spent centuries fighting with and then living with Celts and Germans, and they wrote detailed descriptions of their clothing One of the first things Romans noticed about Gauls was that they dressed in brightly colored patterned or checked cloth These patterns were known as plaids, or tartans The Celts and Germans were experts at dying their woolen thread with natural dyes made from plants They used plants such as madder to make red dye, weld to make yellow, and woad to make blue The people wove threads into patterns that looked just like modern Scottish tartans Different tribes became identified with particular patterns Linen does not take dye well, so most linen remained its natural light color Most ancient European garments required minimal sewing Cloaks were often not sewn at all but were worn as lengths of cloth straight off the loom Celts and Germans shaped sleeves and made trousers, but they also made simple tunics that required only a piece of cloth, pins at the shoulders, and