1122 war and conquest: Africa classic example comes from ancient Sumer, where warriors used stone clubs to bash in heads, so people made metal helmets to absorb the blows, so weapons makers created metal axes to cut through metal helmets, so armorers styled larger, thicker, and more resilient metal helmets, so weapons makers developed new casting techniques that allowed them to make stronger, larger axes with curved blades that could smash through metal helmets, and so on Many of the technological advances of ancient peoples were put to use in war, and many advances came from people trying to find better ways to fight wars Th is race in technology was paralleled by changes in military organization and strategy Whereas the technology of the composite bow made Sargon I ruler of most of the Near East, the strategy of the phalanx helped make the Hittites the military masters of their era The Neo-Assyrian Empire (1050–609 b.c.e.) combined its weapons and armor technologies with sophisticated deployment of highly trained units devoted to one kind of warfare, such as sappers for bringing down enemy walls, archers for long-range attacks, light infantry for responding quickly to events on the battlefield, heavy infantry to push massed enemy troops out of the way, and chariots for shock attacks to break up enemy formations Some historians argue that every great empire of ancient times was built through war This may be too much of a generalization For instance, there are the trade empires of ancient southern India to consider, but even those required some military power to keep trade routes free of bandits What may be noteworthy is that war had its limits Ancient Rome prospered while its armies looted newly conquered territories, but it declined when it did not continue to so During the Han Dynasty (202 b.c.e.–220 c.e.) of China, there was a period in the 100s b.c.e when its army crushed opponents to the south, the west, and the north but at such a high cost of lives and wealth that its economy nearly collapsed Even the Neo-Assyrians ended up fighting wars mostly using mercenaries and vassals because it was running out of its own men to fi ll its armed forces Perhaps it is most important in studying the wars of ancient peoples to note how people struggled to meet each day, to feed themselves and their families, and to endure the pain and sorrow that war infl icted on them For most people most of the time war was something to be survived Some cultures developed strict rules of warfare that minimized bloodshed, allowing for glory for the leaders and for victories while also allowing most warriors or soldiers to return home unharmed Still, such cultures eventually either adopted the waging of war as massive bloodshed or were overwhelmed by the armies of cultures that made war a matter of slaughtering enemy troops Those who failed to learn the lessons of advancing technology and improving military strategy tended to perish Survival seems to have depended on vigilance, sacrifice, discipline, and sound military doctrine AFRICA BY KIRK H BEETZ Rock paintings in southern Africa and in the Sahara show people fighting with bows and spears The identification of these early people is not clear, but the depictions of conflict continue for thousands of years By 9000 b.c.e the people in southern Africa were probably the San, often known as Bushmen It is not clear what the Bushmen fought over As hunter-gatherers, they probably did not have much property to defend or covet, but they may have had territories they considered their own In the often dry plains that many Bushmen inhabited, even a small family group of huntergatherers would have needed a wide territory in which to find food Raids for marriageable women might have been another purpose for confl ict The combat probably involved no more than a dozen fighters at a time At no time did the Bushmen number as many as 300,000 people, which meant they were so thinly spread over their lands that it would have been very unlikely that they could have gathered together enough people to form anything resembling an army The same would be true for the small-statured peoples often referred to as Pygmies, who inhabited most of central Africa and much of the east and south For the ancient peoples of the Sahara the issue of war and conquest is more complex than for southern Africa Their rock paintings hint at an evolution of warfare not found elsewhere in Africa Most depictions of confl ict prior to the Herdsmen Period (ca 5095–ca 2780 b.c.e.) show naked men in small skirmishes During the Herdsmen Period some men in battle seem to wear robes, and there may even have been a hierarchy, indicated by a single figure wearing robes that were colored or tailored differently from those of others in his command It seems that for the cultures depicted, the wearing of clothes may have been reserved for war or other official functions During the Herdsmen Period the rock paintings show a diverse ethnic population, with pale figures mixing with dark ones The primary occupation of people seems to have been herding cattle It is probable that conflicts focused on stealing cattle Prestige could be won in a village or group by successfully stealing cattle from another village or group Wars in which cattle were considered important booty continued into the medieval era In any case, as time passed, the paintings of battles became increasingly common What happened to the ancient warriors of the Sahara grasslands is not entirely known Some of the pale people and the dark people seem to have mixed, perhaps becoming the Berbers Others retreated to Egypt Some retreated to oases as the Sahara slowly dried and created farming communities Around them developed nomadic groups who created their own culture of war in which they mastered horses and the use of weapons These groups preyed on the farmers at the oases, forcing them to pay tribute or die Sometime late during the Horse Period (ca 2780–ca 600 b.c.e.) the attacks on the