228 cities: Rome area only slightly smaller than a football field The basilica was primarily a market space for private businesses, but it often included a dais called a “tribunal,” where courts of law held session The curia was a hall where senators had their meetings Senators tended to be from the social elite, mostly aristocrats During the Roman Republic (509–27 b.c.e.) they were the primary governing body of the city and its empire In cities other than Rome the curia housed meetings of officials who functioned much like senators for these localities FOUNTAINS AND PUBLIC BATHS To the Romans no city was truly a city without enough water to meet the basic needs of its population First and foremost this meant water to supply public fountains, from which anyone could gather it for free Fountains became standard parts of a Roman city, and in Rome itself they were everywhere Next there had to be enough water for people to bathe daily in the public baths Public baths were built in every Roman city and were considered to be part of what made a city livable Even small cities had several such baths (Although it was not the norm, some private homes also had baths When an earthquake hit Pompeii in 62 c.e., its public baths were too damaged to be used; one of the city’s many enterprising businesswomen, Julia Felix, found a way to profit by charging people to use her private bath.) Some city governments also charged for use of the public baths, but the fee was usually small; a city could expect unrest, even violence, if people did not have access to bathing facilities Public baths were called thermae, from the Greek word for “heat,” because some of the pools in them were heated Typically a Roman bather disrobed in a room provided for the purpose and then dived into a large pool of cold water and swam its length Next he or she bathed in one or more heated pools smaller than the cold pool; in large baths there were several of these pools, varying from tepid to very hot Furnaces outside the building heated water that ran through pipes under the bottoms of the pools, warming them in turn From the warm pool the bather went to a steam room and, after working up a good sweat, often returned to the cold pool for a final swim The baths were not merely for bathing; they were social centers Big thermae had several large rooms set apart from the pools, and here Romans conducted business, met with friends, or simply rested The Roman business day usually ended at about p.m., and the bathhouses quickly fi lled with people who had finished work People of all ages and both genders mixed freely, unclothed or nearly so (though it was customary to set aside certain times when only women were allowed in the baths, perhaps so they could comfortably relax without sexual pressures from men) Thermae were supposed to be open all hours of the day, and having the furnaces go out at any time was considered a major inconvenience and even cause for government inquiry If a city’s water supply exceeded what was needed for the fountains and public baths, some of it might be piped into private homes The pipes were usually of lead Water was first piped into private homes in Rome about 146 b.c.e For the most part, however, only wealthy or at least middle-class people could afford this amenity, not only because the plumbing was expensive but also because cities usually charged for water used in this way Another limiting factor was the water pressure Although it was sufficient to feed low-lying fountains, the water pressure in Rome and other cities was never great enough to raise piped water above the ground floor of a home or other building THEATERS AND AMPHITHEATERS Romans expected a true city to provide entertainment, including theatrical offerings of singing, dancing, and plays Beginning in the 400s b.c.e Roman theaters were made of wood and were temporary, taken down after the performance In the 200s Romans began building stone theaters in their cities, and whenever a new city was planned, a spot for the theater was included Almost every Roman city had a theater with seats arranged in a semicircle facing a broad stage, although Rome itself did not have a permanent theater until 55 b.c.e At its height Pompeii had only 12,000 residents, including slaves, but its theater could hold 5,000 people On the other hand, an amphitheater was not essential to a Roman city, although many city plans made room for one The most famous is the Colosseum in Rome Built in 75–80 c.e., it was a massive structure that featured many of the best traits of Roman architecture An amphitheater, with its spectacular events, such as chariot races and gladiatorial combats, was meant to serve an entire region, not just a city In fact, some amphitheaters were built in open land away from cities, drawing audiences from the countryside The amphitheaters had rows of stone benches Seating was separate for different classes of society, with the best seats reserved for the emperor in the city of Rome and for the regional governor or chief administrator in other cities The amphitheater was not a Roman idea, but one borrowed from southern Italy Yet Rome made the amphitheater an instrument of government It served to pacify the public with entertainments, helped indoctrinate native peoples into the Roman way of life, and through its battles and human sacrifices inured audiences to violence and warfare Most Roman men were expected to serve long terms in the army or navy, and the cruel entertainments of the amphitheater helped prepare them for the horrors of battle ROMAN CITIES ABROAD Wherever Romans conquered, they built new Roman cities or added a strongly Roman touch to existing towns In some cases the new cities were intended largely for the Roman soldiers themselves The Roman government encouraged its soldiers to settle in conquered territories and built cities specifically for them because the retired soldiers would be tough,