G ▶ gender structures and roles introduction Much of what historians know, or think they know, about gender relationships in prehistory comes primarily from burial practices and artwork Surviving tombs provide insight, for example, into the status of women and men, and artwork depicts men and women engaged in various activities that were likely an outgrowth of assumptions about gender in that culture During later periods written documents survive that shed light on gender issues, at least in some parts of the world The concept of gender and gender roles was felt in a number of areas of ancient life, including power and rulership, religion, family structure, and occupation, and these roles were typically taught to both boys and girls early in life through initiation rituals and segregation of the sexes With regard to power, it comes as no surprise that most ancient world cultures were dominated by men, with women playing more passive, domestic roles This was not universally true at all times and all places, however From time to time—in ancient Greece and Egypt, for example—a powerful woman emerged who assumed the reins of power In doing so, though, she probably had to take on many stereotypical masculine traits, such as ruthlessness In religion men tended to serve as priests, shamans, and religious gurus, but again, this was not universally true In the ancient Americas, for example, archaeological evidence suggests that women often served as shamans and priests It was also common in many cultures for its pantheon of deities to include goddesses as well as gods The ancient Greeks and Romans are prominent in this regard, but examples of goddess figures can be found in ancient cultures the world over These goddess figures were thought to have ruled over various spheres of life, and this idea would have affected concepts of proper gender roles and expectations With regard to family structure, the status and role of women was probably determined in large part by the economic conditions of the culture In hunter-gatherer societies it was long assumed that men did both the hunting and gathering while women tended to the home Some scholars dispute this assumption, arguing that women took an active role in gathering food and may very well have hunted small game As cultures turned to agriculture and became more sedentary and complex, gender specialization became the norm, with men involved in public affairs and women performing primarily domestic tasks Women may have taken primary responsibility for domestic tasks, but in many cultures they also held occupations, primarily crafts In the ancient Americas, for example, women were primarily responsible for such activities as textile production and weaving Because a great deal of craftwork took place in homes, it is reasonable to conclude that women took part as potters, wood carvers, and the like Men generally were of higher status in patriarchal cultures and had authority over their wives and family, but some cultures, particularly in Africa, were more matriarchal, with the wife and mother ruling in the home It was not uncommon in many cultures for men and women to spend most of their time apart, with women living in separate “women’s quarters” and men taking part in separate activities It should be 493