settlement patterns: Rome the two city-states with the largest agricultural hinterlands, namely, Sparta and Athens Access to the sea was beneficial for trade but by no means a requisite for cities in classical Greece These factors account for the resettlement of former urban areas (usually with the same Mycenaean name) during the Iron Age, as Greece has always been a land of limited water and limited agricultural land The abundance of harbors and ease of access to the sea for most of the interior fostered a culture of seamanship This orientation was further driven by the poor mobility between Greek regions and cities owning to the mountainous and hilly terrain In turn, the period of colonization of distant shores from the eighth through sixth centuries b.c.e was facilitated by the experience of the Greeks in managing the geographic circumstances of their homeland The hills contributed to the isolation and fragmentation of the city-states that emerged in the Iron Age The rare plains lent themselves to the formation of leagues among the cities and villages ringing them The members of these leagues would fight among themselves over access to resources, but they formed a united front against outside invaders The origin of the institutions of classical Greece can be traced and attributed to the values and experiences of farmers living on this land The sense of individual worth, egalitarianism, and independence all followed from attitudes expressed by and attributed to farmers Greek writers took pride in the difficulty of their climate and soil in regard to agricultural production Such characteristics as courageousness, fierceness, physical strength, and intelligence all sprang from life on farms, according to classical authors ROME BY DAVID B HOLLANDER In the Roman world agriculture was the foundation of the economy, and owning land was the basis of social status Thus both the settlement and use of land were of considerable importance in the development of the empire Political and military factors influenced where colonies were established, while economic, cultural, climatic, and geographic factors determined the location of farms, villages, and towns and whether they flourished or failed A number of different kinds of sources shed light on Roman settlement patterns, each with its drawbacks Literary sources, such as agricultural manuals and the writings of elite Romans including Cicero and Pliny the Younger, provide some information about the size and location of farms and villas, but these authors rarely discuss the situations and concerns of any but the wealthiest Romans Survey archaeology, in which a team of archaeologists examines land for surface traces of ancient activity by walking over it, can provide a much fuller picture of settlement patterns In many parts of the empire one still finds traces of the boundaries established by centuriation, the process Roman surveyors used to mark out land allotments for new settlers Surveys reveal the 971 remains of ancient farmhouses and villages as well as those of larger villas They can also indicate how settlement patterns changed over time Nevertheless, survey archaeology cannot determine who owned a given structure or how much land was associated with it Furthermore, it is likely that the dwellings of the poorest farmers left few traces for archaeologists to find The excavation of the remains of rural structures can suggest how the surrounding land was exploited and the nature of a villa or farm’s interaction with the local environment and market Inscriptions and papyrus manuscripts also sometimes provide information concerning the ownership and use of land Several Roman agricultural manuals have survived from antiquity The earliest, written by Cato the Elder, dates to the second century b.c.e.; Varro wrote another about a century later, and a third was composed in the fi rst century c.e by Columella Pliny the Elder, author of 37 volumes on natural history, provides additional information These writers discuss not only estate management and the cultivation of crops but also the question of where to build a farm Many factors had to be considered when buying agricultural land According to Cato, ideally, the climate should be good, and the property should be at the base of a mountain facing south, having access to water and a supply of labor as well as roads, navigable waterways, or a nearby town Good neighbors and land capable of growing a variety of crops also were considered desirable features Varro discusses two other important factors related to the establishment of rural estates: health and safety Proximity to swamps and marshes is undesirable, while, in certain regions, a farmer might have to contend with brigands Varro stresses the advantages of having property near a town or village, where one could sell produce and purchase necessities Small estates on the outskirts of Rome could prove immensely profitable if their production was geared toward the city’s insatiable demand for game, fish, and flowers Wealthy Romans frequently built luxury villas where they might relax or entertain guests Prior to the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 c.e., the land around the Bay of Naples was a particularly popular location Little can be said with certainty about the earliest phase of Roman settlement during the regal period Tradition held that shepherds and outlaws formed the bulk of the followers of Romulus, Rome’s legendary founder It is likely that pastoral agriculture played a more important role in Rome’s first centuries than it did later Romans of the late Republic believed that their ancestors had worked small plots of land on the outskirts of the city As the Roman Empire expanded, three important trends emerged: colonization, the designation of conquered land as ager publicus (public land), and growth in the size of upper-class estates Colonies served several functions The Romans founded some small colonies, such as Antium and Ostia, on the coast to protect against seaborne attacks Other colonies were essentially garrisons in newly conquered territory