storage and preservation: Greece peratures, bright sunshine, and low humidity were needed, so drying was not always possible Accordingly, the ancient Europeans turned to a related technique, smoking, particularly for meat and fish Smoke contains a number of substances that bind to the surface of the cells of meat products, allowing them to resist the action of bacteria While meat and fish would normally spoil after perhaps a week, smoked meat and fish could be consumed safely for three months or more Similarly, storing meat, fish, and vegetables in brine— that is, a concentrated solution of water and salt—provided similar protection against microbes Salt was a highly valued commodity in ancient Europe, and the salt-producing region of Austria near the modern-day city of Salzburg (salz means “salt” in German) enjoyed a great deal of wealth by mining it The ancient Gauls sold salted pork to the Romans Salt was especially valuable to the Scandinavian cultures of northern Europe, whose diet included a great deal of fish that had to be stored during winter months, when bodies of water were frozen over or too stormy to allow fishing A related technique was the use of spices to preserve food; modern scientists have shown that some spices effectively fight the formation of harmful bacteria In ancient Europe, however, spices were extremely valuable commodities, available only from Arab traders The average person probably would not have had access to spices, although the elite would have The ancient Europeans, again in common with the rest of the world, needed reliable sources of wholesome beverages that would not become stale and brackish in storage Fermented beverages, such as beer and wine, provided them with drinkable liquids throughout the year Of course, the Europeans by no means invented fermented beverages, but they did introduce the wooden barrel as a way of storing and transporting wine and beer The ancient Europeans devoted considerable resources to the storing of food In common with other cultures of the world, they used caves where they could Caves have the advantage of being at a constant cool temperature, with reliable humidity levels Caves were the earliest form of root cellars and were particularly useful for the storing of root vegetables as well as fruits Where caves were not available, the Europeans constructed granaries and other facilities for the storage of food, particularly for grain Throughout the Celtic lands of western Europe and the British Isles, for example, archaeologists have uncovered a large number of hill forts and, in Scotland, brochs (circular stone fortifications) that date from the Iron Age These hill forts were settlements that housed up to several hundred people, though sometimes they were occupied seasonally or provided a place of refuge for people and their livestock in times of war These hill forts were administrative centers for the surrounding region, and one of the major functions they served was that of food storage and preservation In England, for example, hill forts such as Danebury have been found with massive grain-storage capacity Many of these hill forts were built on chalk subsoil, and in their in- 1067 teriors were pits used for food storage, as underground grain silos Normally, the moisture of an underground pit would cause any grain stored in them to rot However, the Europeans may have found a solution to the problem The grain was poured into the pit, and then the pit was covered with an airtight clay seal The seal was then covered with dirt to keep the seal from drying and cracking The grain in contact with the moist earth of the pit germinated, consuming all the oxygen in the pit and releasing carbon dioxide Because the seal was airtight, no further oxygen could enter The remainder of the grain, then, was preserved in a state of “suspended animation.” In this way it could have been preserved for months, as long as the seal remained intact GREECE BY LYN GREEN From the Minoans and Mycenaeans (2600–1100 b.c.e.) of the Bronze Age to the Hellenistic Greek world more than a thousand years later there were many similarities in food storage and preservation No matter what the time period, the storage needs of the people did not change For the short term, food had to be stored before eating or before it was redistributed through rations An example of medium-term storage was putting aside an amount of food to last through the gaps between growing seasons or before it was exported or otherwise used in trade Farmers also had to put aside enough seed each year to plant the next season’s crop, and prudent householders and city rulers put aside food in case of famine or war These were examples of long-term storage in large volumes Although both seed for planting and food put aside against famine were both problems in long-term and large-volume storage, there was one significant difference When it was time for crop planting, the storage areas for seeds would be emptied until the end of season There was no need to worry about contamination or spoilage of food that was now open to air This may have affected the choice of container or structure for storage Tablets from the palaces of Crete and Greece in the Bronze Age show that palatial structures served as warehouses for goods and food items from the surrounding countryside Olives, olive oil, grain, honey, fruit, and meat all were stored there Grains such as wheat and barley were sometimes kept in palace courtyards in huge pottery vessels called pithoi There were also other means of storing grain The earliest forms of storage were probably pits lined with clay or stone They would have been kept tightly sealed to keep out air and vermin, such as rats and mice There is much disagreement among scholars about the purpose of some of the large pits excavated at places like Knossos and whether they would have been an efficient way to store grain, because it might have been difficult to keep out pests and mold-causing moisture It is generally agreed, however, that these large pits would have been most suitable for long-term storage Clay bins were also used for keeping grain Sometimes, however,