Encyclopedia of society and culture in the ancient world ( PDFDrive ) 248

cities: Europe Many of the sites mentioned by Caesar have been identified; they are characterized by massive ramparts, usually a single bank and ditch, surrounding areas of 100 to 1,000 acres, mostly on hilltops or promontories that could be easily defended Caesar describes these ramparts, which he calls murus gallicus (Gallic wall) They consisted of several layers of timbers laid out in a rectilinear grid with iron spikes nailing them together where they crossed The spaces between the timbers were filled with rock and soil, and the front and back were revetted (faced with a material that gives support) with walls of drystone (stones fitted together without mortar) through which the timbers protruded; an earthen ramp ran behind Caesar notes that these barriers were resistant to fire, ramming, and sapping (excavating) Some 40 sites, including Mont Beuvray, have produced ramparts approximating Caesar’s description, mainly west of the Rhine but also as far east as Manching in Bavaria Caesar mentions other types of ramparts; one, with a massive earthen bank and wide ditch, was common in northern and central France, often replacing a murus gallicus Many sites not mentioned by Caesar have also been identified, not only in Gaul but east of the Rhine in areas he never reached: southern and central Germany, the Czech and Slovak republics, and Austria and Hungary In these areas, however, the usual rampart is an earthen bank revetted in front by wooden posts, with the gaps fi lled by drystone walling Finds from these sites show that they were being constructed from the late second century b.c.e onward, though some in central Europe may date to as early as 180–150 b.c.e There had been a long tradition of constructing defended sites in temperate Europe extending back to the fourth millennium b.c.e., but the oppida tend to be much larger than these early sites, implying a higher level of social organization Farther north, in Poland, northern Germany, and Scandinavia, urban sites did not appear until the late first millennium c.e The oppida also contrast with the defended sites on the Mediterranean coast in southern France and eastern Spain, which were much smaller and more closely spaced, more like “citystates” than the “tribal” states that produced the oppida BEFORE THE OPPIDA Although the oppida are often called the “earliest towns north of the Alps,” they did not appear from nowhere; sites with urban characteristics existed as early as the sixth century b.c.e in western Europe In 600 b.c.e refugees from the Greek city of Phocis founded the colony of Massalia (modern Marseilles) near the mouth of the Rhône in southern France Trade linking the developing civilizations of Greece and Italy with central and western Europe had started earlier, but it expanded rapidly after the foundation of the colony, and fine pottery from mainland Greece, wine amphorae (large pottery jars for shipping and storing liquids and other goods) from southern France, bronze vessels from Italy, and other luxury goods turn up on a number of trading sites that were established along the main river routes leading into the in- 219 terior Bronze buckets from northern Italy are found as far north as southern Sweden The major route led northward along the Rhône and its tributaries the Saône and the Doubs At Lyons, where the Rhône meets the Saône, a major settlement has been identified on the banks of the Saône A bit farther south, at Vienne, a similar settlement was established where land routes between the upper Loire and northern Italy crossed the Rhône Bragny lies on the Doubs, near its confluence with the Saône, controlling the route that leads northeast up to the Middle Rhine and the headwaters of the Danube Although these sites seem mainly to have been ports for river traffic, Bragny was also involved in producing iron and bronze goods, and a site on the Dürrnberg in Austria was associated with salt mining, although its inhabitants engaged in other industries as well The most spectacular evidence for this trade system, however, comes from farther inland, from sites controlling the headwaters of rivers that lead away from the Rhône valley toward the Atlantic, the Baltic, and the heart of Europe The Heuneburg, in southern Germany, overlooks the point at which the Danube becomes navigable; Asperg, near Stuttgart, controls the Neckar, a tributary of the Rhine; in France, Mont Lassois overlooks the upper Seine and Bourges the confluence of two tributaries of the Loire At most of these sites there is a small central hill fort; at the site of the Heuneburg the fort was defended by a wall made of sundried brick with bastionlike towers, features unknown at this period anywhere else outside the Mediterranean area Inside, a thriving settlement produced metal objects and other goods, and surrounding it a concentration of other settlement areas likewise engaged in industry and trade, as the imported Mediterranean artifacts show What makes some of these sites stand out are the exceptionally rich burials under massive tumuli (artificial hills or mounds of earth or stone) The Hohmichele at the Heuneburg, Hochdorf at Asperg, and Vix at Mont Lassois are the richest prehistoric burials from central or western Europe, featuring large wooden chambers, four-wheeled vehicles, rich gold objects, and spectacular imported luxury goods like, at Vix, a bronze vessel for mixing wine that stands nearly five and a half feet high These graves are presumed to be those of “chieftains” who controlled and grew wealthy from the trade in goods gathered locally as tribute and “gift exchange.” Bourges is more enigmatic; the settlement is richer than the others in terms of the quantity of imported goods, but it lacks the exceptionally rich burials, and a central defended site has yet to be identified The site consists of a cluster of areas of occupation, with extensive evidence of industrial activity, especially bronze production, manufacturing brooches and other ornaments The site seems to have been occupied for only a short period in the late sixth and the fift h centuries b.c.e., perhaps three or four generations These developments toward urbanization were shortlived The very rich burials disappeared, and Mediterranean