82 architecture: primary source documents the Islamic world Using glazed tiles to decorate portals and facades of buildings and stucco to ornament mihrabs reached its highest point in the Timurid Period (1370–1506) The third phase was marked by an emphasis on color rather than on texture While in western areas, such as Spain and North Africa, tiles and stucco were combined with carved wooden elements in geometrical and symmetrical schemes, in Iran and central Asia brick and tile covered the whole surface of buildings At the same time, the Ottomans used stone as a decorative element on the exterior of buildings and tiles on the interior of buildings, while Mughals in India used decorations on facades with an emphasis on white marble and red sandstone The decorative elements of Islamic buildings include calligraphy, geometrical patterns, floral patterns, the arabesque (an intricate floral pattern), and figurative and animal patterns Replacing figurative arts in Western architecture, calligraphy, a way to record God’s words in the Koran, was a central decorative element in Islamic architecture From the earliest Islamic building, the Dome of the Rock, calligraphy as a sacred element was used to connect the physical space to heaven The inscriptions were usually framed geometrically on portals, on cornices, on domes, and even in corridors Though the inscriptions were different in purpose and decoration, the meanings of the inscriptions used in different parts of the building typically were connected through symbolic associations Geometric patterns, with their abstract forms, which were developed in Islamic art to avoid realism, originated in Parthian and Sassanid decorations These geometrical patterns were used to balance positive and negative areas of a building and to dematerialize architecture The application of these patterns obliged architects to work with mathematicians to develop complicated systems of geometry Muslim artists, especially after the 15th century, produced floral patterns to create symmetrical and repetitive schemes Flowers and trees depicted in manuscripts were used as motifs in objects, textiles, and buildings Another decorative element, which also had roots in the Hellenistic Near East and Parthia, was arabesque, which was widely used after the 10th century Arabesque as interlacing plant forms and Europe abstract curvilinear motifs was characterized by a series of counterpoised and leafy stems that split off and returned into the main stem The arabesque patterns were placed on a carefully designed network of grids designed on complex mathematical principles In western areas, such as Spain, Egypt, and Morocco, stucco, marble, and mosaic decorations were used in decorations of parts of buildings; in eastern regions arabesque provided an overall and monumental decoration Although Islam discouraged the depiction of figures in art and architecture, under European and Buddhist influence figural art, more or less, was applied, especially in private buildings In addition, light and water were used not only as components to define spaces but also as decorative elements For Muslims, light was a symbol of God, while water was a symbol of purity of soul In addition to its patterns, forms, and designs, natural light changed with the time of day or year This change could create different phenomenal properties in space and also could provide a mobile projection of patterns The interplay with light and shade, especially in religious structures, was a tool to enhance spirituality while defining the function of each space The movement of water in channels or fountains and its stability in pools played a significant role not only in cooling the environment but also in defining new dimensions, such as sound and reflection, and even in highlighting the interplay of light and shadow See also art; astronomy; building techniques and materials; calendars and clocks; cities; climate and geography; crafts; building techniques and materials; death and burial practices; economy; empires and dynasties; employment and labor; festivals; forests and forestry; illumination; metallurgy; military; mining, quarrying, and salt making; numbers and counting; natural disasters; nomadic and pastoral societies; occupations; religion and cosmology; sacred sites; science; settlement patterns; ships and shipbuilding; social collapse and abandonment; social organization; sports and recreation; storage and preservation; towns and villages; trade and exchange; war and conquest • Procopios: “On the Great Church” (Hagia Sophia), excerpt from De aedificiis (sixth century) • The emperor, thinking not of cost of any kind, pressed on the work, and collected together workmen from every land Anthemius of Tralles, the most skilled in the builder’s art, not only of his own but of all former times, carried forward the king’s zealous intentions, organized the labours of the workmen, and prepared models of the future construction Associated with him was another architect [mechanopoios] named Isidorus, a Milesian by birth, a man of intelligence,