agriculture: Europe 31 resulted from the invasions and migrations from the north and east, which had broken up large estates, permanently scattered the landowning Roman aristocracy, and had ended the system of rural slavery The staple crops in the region were wheat, olives, and wine grapes, with the addition of beans that added protein to a peasant’s meager diet Stock farming of cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats was important in the interior of the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor Byzantine farmers used a variety of iron tools and broke the land with a small plow known as the ard Through the first centuries of the empire, as the rural population expanded, new land was cleared for planting in the forests of the Balkans, and irrigation works brought water to dry regions of Asia Minor and the Levant Village Life and Work Medieval peasants lived within small villages, which in northern Europe were surrounded by unfenced land divided into narrow strips This open-field system of scattered strips of land separated by furrows or boundary fences dates to the time of Charlemagne Strip farming made plowing with a large team of animals easier, because fewer turns were necessary to work a single parcel of land The heavy moldboard plow used in northern Europe dug deep furrows, allowing excess rainfall to drain more easily By the 10th century wheeled plows were coming into use in northern Europe These heavy instruments were pulled by teams of oxen, in teams of two or four (Heavier, rocky soil required even larger teams.) Horses had been less common than oxen because they were more expensive to buy and feed But the use of horses as farm animals increased with the arrival of the horse collar, which was invented in China and came to Europe around the eighth or ninth century with the caravans of traders crossing from eastern Asia along the Silk Road The padded collar fit around the animal’s neck but did not cut off its breathing, as did earlier harnesses By distributing the weight of the load, the horse collar enabled the horse to plow heavy soil and haul heavy carts at a faster pace than could an ox Each farmer worked several narrow 1-acre plots within a larger field Farmers owned plows and heavy equipment in common and shared the labor of plowing, planting, and harvesting their crops The plots that were the property of a single peasant were an endless subject of dispute over rights and inheritance within the household As families multiplied, the plots were parceled out among the heirs, leading to a patchwork quilt of tenancy rights that did little to enhance the efficiency of food production Every year the farmer paid out a portion of his harvest to the lord as a form of rent The peasants also relied on a house garden to provide them with cabbages, leeks, onions, and garlic as well as dye plants, medicinal herbs, and cash crops Man with pruning hook climbing palm tree; detail of a manuscript page, Spain, 1220 (Courtesy the Morgan Library and Museum) such as flax and hemp Pastures were owned communally, with stock animals looked after by the village herdsman Also held in common were forested areas, useful for cutting wood, hunting small game, and collecting wild food such as nuts, berries, and mushrooms The forest floors also were used for pannage, or pasturing for domesticated pigs, which fed on ground nuts and fallen acorns The homes of the peasants were constructed of wattle and daub, or mud plastered over a frame of sawn wood or heavy branches Tightly bound straw or reeds were used as roofing material For the peasants living in these small and dark homes, disease and hunger were familiar, travel was dangerous, and life was full of perils Their diet consisted of bread and ale, vegetables from their private gardens, and occasional meat: beef, pork, chicken, or other fowl such as geese and wild game or birds