480 food and diet: Rome Terra-cotta utensil with six receptacles, thought to be an egg dish or cup holder (Alison Frantz Photographic Collection, American School of Classical Studies at Athens) potential health hazards, the most common drink was wine, generally diluted and drunk at every meal, from morning to night, even by children While beer was known to the Greeks because it was a common drink among their neighbors in Europe to the north and in Egypt to the south, it was considered an uncouth drink The science of making wine, oenology, and the science of growing grapes for wine, viticulture, were highly developed among the Greeks, who understood the complex relationship between variety of grape, climate, and condition of soil in determining the quality of a wine Certain areas were noted for their wines Chios, with its Chian wine, was probably the most famous, but the islands of Cos, Thasos, and Lesbos were also well known for their vintages Coan wine, from Cos, was made by incorporating seawater into the fermenting grapes early in production, which was said to make an especially smooth drink Drinking undiluted wine was rare, the mark of a barbarian The Spartan king Cleomenes was said to have learned from the Persians to drink wine “straight,” and consequently he went mad Nevertheless, at symposia, the drinking-and-discussion parties popular among aristocrats, huge amounts of wine could be consumed, resulting in drunkenness, the effects of which are often comically depicted on painted vases, particularly vases intended for use at a symposium ROME BY AMY HACKNEY BLACKWELL The ancient Roman diet was simple at its core but could rise to great heights of invention and extravagance The staple ingredients of Roman cooking were olive oil, wine, and wheat In many cases these components formed the entire meal, perhaps with the addition of a few fresh vegetables Wealthy Ro- mans, however, enjoyed dining in company and encouraged the creation of expensive and original dishes Numerous works by Romans on food and drink survive today Cato the Censor (234–149 b.c.e.) wrote a great deal about food in his treatise on farm management, De agri cultura He describes the best way to produce and sell oil, wine, grain, and livestock and records many recipes for preserving food made on the farm The most elaborate source on the subject of Roman cuisine is Apicius on Cookery, a compilation of recipes said to have been written by the gourmet Caelius Apicius and probably completed around the fourth century c.e Wheat formed the foundation of most meals In the earliest days of Rome wheat was most commonly cooked into porridge, but by the time of the Roman Republic (509–27 b.c.e.) baked bread was more common Getting this bread to Roman tables was no small feat During the republic most of Rome’s wheat was grown in Sicily and Sardinia To prevent famines and the peasant revolts that could accompany them, the Roman government created a system to provide wheat to all citizens Th is system began under Gaius Gracchus, who in 123 b.c.e passed a lex frumentaria, or grain law, that provided grain to each citizen at a subsidized price Clodius Pulcher made grain free to all citizens in 58 b.c.e By the time of the emperor Trajan (r 98–117 c.e.), Rome was importing much of its wheat from Egypt and Africa and still distributing it free to citizens Administering this enterprise required a large bureaucracy of officials to keep track of distributions Romans supplemented their bread with olive oil and wine The olive grew readily in Italy and the Mediterranean, and olive oil was ubiquitous Olive oil is packed with calories and nutrients and was the main source of fat in the ancient Roman diet Romans also ate cured olives Wine and water were the main Roman beverages People typically mixed their wine with water Women were not supposed to drink wine; one of Rome’s most ancient laws made it illegal for women to drink wine, and although the law was not enforced, it was still considered improper for women to drink too much Greek wine was popular, but Italy produced its fair share of vintages as well Romans sometimes mixed honey and spices into wine They did not drink beer, mead, or milk because they considered these the drinks of barbarians such as Germans They likewise did not make distilled drinks Vegetables and fruits fi lled out most meals The most common vegetables included onions, garlic, radishes, celery, asparagus, carrots, beets, and zucchini Poor people gathered wild greens and boiled them Typical fruits included figs, grapes, dates, apples, pears, mulberries, peaches, apricots, and cherries Walnuts and almonds were popular nuts Tomatoes and potatoes did not grow in Europe at that time; the traditional Italian tomato sauce did not arise until after the discovery of the Americas Many Romans were completely vegetarian, both from necessity and from inclination Most Romans got their pro-