architecture: Europe yard These drab cells evolved from the caves in which monks had lived in previous centuries Another, called the chaitya, was a set of halls that could be used when the main outdoor stupa could not because of bad weather One of the interesting elements of the chaitya is that they were built in a manner similar to older Vedic architecture, but in stone rather than in wood Thus, the chaitya have barrelshaped vaulted roofs, entrances shaped like horseshoes, and railings Archaeologists speculate that the craftsmen who built the structure were reluctant to give up the techniques they had used for building wooden structures when they turned to the use of stone In fact, much of the cave architecture of ancient India, such as the caves at the city of Karle, look in most ways as though they have been carved out of wood, right down to the “joints” that were carved into the stone Other early temples, such as the modest temple at Tigawa near modern-day Jabalpur, use a great deal of stone, including a stone slab for the roof, giving the temples an almost cavelike quality, though much of the stone is intricately carved These and similar structures were precursors to an era marked by the construction of magnificent Buddhist temples under the reign of the Gupta Dynasty, which reached the height of its power in about 400 c.e During this period builders turned away from their “wood carving” approach to stone and began to employ techniques more suitable for stone and masonry construction This gave rise to a style of architecture that was radically new Until this time Indian architecture had been relatively simple and impermanent The earliest Indians worshipped in the open, then in buildings constructed with reeds and bamboo, then in wooden postand-beam buildings, and finally in stone stupas Under the Gupta Dynasty, though, architects began to develop the core principles that led to more magnificent temples during the later medieval period One early Gupta temple is a small Shiva temple in the Jhansi district of India, in the town of Deogarh (A Shiva temple was one dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva.) One noteworthy characteristic of this temple is that above the central worship area was erected a raised, pyramid-shaped structure that is estimated to have been 40 feet tall (much of the temple is lost) The temple also has four porticoes, or covered porches, one facing in each compass direction The temple is also of interest because of the elaborate carvings on the exterior pillars ARCHITECTURE OF ANCIENT KOREA Archaeologists have discovered the remains of Korean civilization dating back to the fi ft h millennium b.c.e Among the remains are those of homes The earliest homes on the Korean Peninsula were pits in the earth Later homes used earthen walls with thatched roofs, and still later homes were made of logs Among the architectural sites that have been excavated is that of the city of Choson, which emerged in the fourth century b.c.e and survived to the third century c.e There 69 archaeologists have uncovered the remains of colonial headquarters buildings and tombs Most of the official buildings were constructed of brick and wood, and their roofs were tiled Tombs include the Tomb of the Painted Basket, a wooden structure with a single chamber and a large number of treasures Tombs of kings and members of the upper classes have also been found in Koguryo, Kungn ae-song, and Pyongyang, which served as district capitals In about 18 b.c.e the city of Paekche was founded, and it, too, is the site of numerous building sites and tombs Prominent among the city’s sites was a central pagoda with an entrance gate, a main hall, and other rooms laid out along a central axis, reflecting the influence of Chinese architecture ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE PACIFIC ISLANDS ON THE Not a great deal is known about the architectural achievements of the peoples who inhabited the four major regions and some 25,000 islands that make up Oceania: Australasia (including Australia and New Zealand), Micronesia (including Guam, the Mariana Islands, and the Marshall Islands), Melanesia (including Fiji, New Guinea, Indonesia, and the Solomon Islands), and Polynesia (including Samoa, the Cook Islands, and Tonga) Settlement of these islands was a slow process over long periods of time, as people had to travel from far-flung locations by boat Most of the region’s architectural record dates back, at the earliest, to about 500 c.e However, the remains that exist demonstrate an ability on the part of Oceanic peoples to adapt their architecture to their environment, using wood, coral, lava rock, reeds, and other materials that happened to be at hand on a particular island EUROPE BY J AMES A CORRICK Ten thousand years ago the people of Europe lived a nomadic life as they followed game and searched for other food These hunter-gatherers established temporary camps from which to hunt, fish, and forage Their dwellings were as temporary as their camps and were easily assembled from materials found at hand, such as the wood and bark of trees, stones, and animal hides These early shelters were the beginning of European architecture TENTS AND HUTS The most common shelters for early Europeans were tents that were fashioned in a variety of shapes—circular, oval, rectangular, and square Whatever the shape, each tent had a wooden frame from which hides to form walls Sometimes stones were placed along the bottom of the hide walls to hold them in place European hunter-gatherers also built wooden huts, which had the same variety of shapes as tents The walls were wooden poles or stakes covered with bark, reeds, or hides in order to add further protection from wind and rain Entry was through an opening left in the wall, which