SIXTEENTH-CENTURY PHILOSOPHY The Council of Trent in its final session, as represented in a contemporary Spanish engraving doctrine of transubstantiation and the traditional seven sacraments By the time the council had Wnished its work, in 1563, Luther was dead and Calvin was dying The division of Christendom was an unnecessary tragedy The theological issues which separated Luther and Calvin from their Catholic opponents had been debated many times in the Middle Ages without leading to sectarian warfare; and few twenty-first-century Catholics and Protestants, if not professionally trained in theology, are aware of the real nature of the diVerences between the contrasting theories of the Eucharist, of grace, and of predestination which in the sixteenth century led to 10