Index environmental versus evolutionary response 3:386 evolutionary rates 3:386–387 general discussion 3:386 influencing factors 3:387 natural selection 3:386 plasticity adaptations 3:387–388 general discussion 3:385 population adaptations 3:385–386 research approaches climate variables 3:388 experimental manipulation 3:389 future predictions 3:389 geographic variations 3:388 long-term studies 3:388 past climate change 3:388 population dynamics manipulation 3:389 range limits 3:388 resurrection ecology 3:388–389 theoretical perspectives 3:389–390 research summary 3:390 extinctions 2:73–78 background information 3:407–408 biodiversity loss communities and ecosystems 2:76 coral reef ecosystems 3:449–450, 4:664 geographic and landscape scale variation 2:74–75 global warming 4:664 individuals and populations 2:75–76, 2:75F species interaction risks 2:76–77 temporal match–mismatch (TMM) hypothesis 2:76 climate change predictions 3:408, 3:408F coral reef ecosystems 3:449–450, 4:664 current trends 2:73 global impact 2:73 habitat loss and fragmentation 3:408 research summary 2:77 risk factors extrinsic risks 2:74, 2:75F intrinsic risks 2:73–74, 2:74F extreme events 4:212–213 fire/fire regimes 3:441 forest canopies 3:524 forest ecosystems 3:535, 6:149–150, 6:150T future research areas abrupt climate changes 2:69–70 adaptability studies 2:70 ecological applications-driven research 2:70 interactive/multiscale models 2:70 transient scenarios 2:69 global agriculture impacts 3:427–429, 3:428F greenhouse effect 2:58–59 habitat alteration 4:155 habitat loss and fragmentation 2:58–59, 2:80, 3:221, 3:408, 4:56, 6:62 harmful algal blooms 1:479–481 historical perspective 2:82–83 historic land-use patterns 4:569–570 ice core studies 2:59–60 indicator species species distribution changes 4:257–258, 4:259F species sensitivity 4:256–257, 4:258F infectious diseases 2:531–532 international organizations 4:326 marine ecosystems 5:32–44 abundance impacts 5:34–35 community impacts 5:37–38 conservation strategies assisted colonization 5:41 ecosystem-based management 5:40 fisheries management 5:40–41 goals and priorities 5:38–39 marine protected areas 5:39–40 predictive models 5:39 restoration 5:41 distribution impacts 5:35–36 evolutionary impacts adaptation rates 5:36 climate tolerance 5:36–37 general discussion 5:36 genetic diversity 5:36–37 local adaptations 5:36 future research areas 5:41 global impacts 3:449, 5:32 physiological impacts ocean acidification 5:33–34 rising seawater temperatures 5:33 research needs 5:41 marine mammal extinctions 5:89–91 marine protected areas 5:100–101 marine sedimentary habitats 5:113F, 5:114–115 migration impacts 5:318 neotropical seasonally dry forests 5:497–498 paleotemperature assessments 4:224–226, 4:225F phenological shifts 5:716–727 basic concepts 5:716–717 consequences microevolution 5:724–725 population viability 5:723–724, 5:724F future outlook 5:725–726 methodological challenges 5:717 phenological mismatches life-history stages 5:723 trophic levels 5:722–723, 5:722F research background 5:716 research observations between-population variations 5:720 between-species variations 5:718–720 general discussion 5:717–718 linked observed shifts 5:720–721 literature reviews 5:717–718, 5:719F migration timing 5:721 reproduction timing 5:721 research summary 5:722 spring phenological shifts 5:718F winter rest onset and termination timing 5:721–722 plant biodiversity threats 6:62 607 plant conservation 6:83–84 predictive approaches future research areas 2:69 global warming forecasts 2:62 model validation and reliability 2:62–63 relevance empirical mapping techniques 2:64–65 global circulation models (GCMs) 2:63–64 regional changes 2:64 regional scale models 2:65 societal forcing estimations 2:60–62 protected area systems challenges 5:449 Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park 5:449 Seamounts Marine Management Area 5:449–450 range shifts 4:599–611 basic concepts 4:599 conservation management 4:607–608 ecological consequences 4:606–607 ecological drivers 4:599–600 evidentiary research elevational range shifts 4:603–604, 4:605T global trends 4:602–603 latitudinal range shifts 4:603, 4:604T future challenges 4:608 geographic dimensions 4:599–600, 4:600F range shift types crash-range shifts 4:601F, 4:602 lean-range shifts 4:601F, 4:602 march-range shifts 4:601F, 4:602 shift mechanisms climate change-based directional range shifts 4:600–602 population dynamics 4:600, 4:601F range core versus range periphery 4:600, 4:601F range shift types 4:602 time lag response 4:604–606, 4:606F riparian zones 6:467T salmon population 6:529 savannas 1:71–72 South America 6:609 Southeast Asia 1:517 Southern Hemisphere ecosystems 6:617 species distribution modeling (SDM) 6:698–699 species loss 5:597 Succulent Karoo 1:489 synergistic effects 2:58–59 terrestrial impact 2:100–114 adaptation actions adaptive management 2:107 basic concepts 2:105–106 cooperation and coordination efforts 2:106 general discussion 2:105–106 management strategies 2:106–107 resistance and resilience strategies 2:106 spatiotemporal scale factors 2:106