Index chytrids 5:47–48 chytriomycosis 2:86–87, 4:664 cicadas 4:392T Cicconiformes 1:432 Cicer arietinum 2:390, 2:662–663 Cichla ocellaris 6:233–235 cichlids adaptive radiation 1:24–25, 1:25F, 1:29–30, 1:432 biodiversity issues 3:444 characteristics 3:467–471, 3:470F East African lake ecosystems 4:463–464 interspecies competition 2:141 Near East ecosystems 5:470 sympatric speciation 6:625 cichoric acid 6:137–138, 6:138F Cichorium intybus 3:131–132 Cicindelinae 1:250, 1:250T, 1:251F, 1:252F Cicindellidae 1:709–710 Ciconiiformes 1:606–607, 6:308T ciguatoxin 6:131, 6:132F Cilacap 1:276T ciliates 5:568, 5:569F, 6:289T, 6:290F, 6:295–296, 6:296F, 6:586, 6:587F ciliophorans 5:669–670T, 6:25 Ciliophrys 6:293 Cimex hemipterus 7:294 Cimex lectularius 7:287–288, 7:294 Cimicidae 7:294 Cimicomorpha 7:293 Cinchona calycina 1:166–167 Cinchona pubescens 5:712T Cingulata 2:586, 2:587F, 4:689–690 cinnabar moth 6:159F Cinnamomum 1:270–271 Cinnamomum camphora 5:712T Circaeasteraceae 1:260T Circaetus gallicus 5:474 Circoviridae 5:134T, 5:136 CIRCUITSCAPE (software program) 4:512 circuit theory-based models 4:512 Circus aeruginosus 5:474 Circus maurus 1:487–488 Ciridops anna 1:29F Cirratulidae 7:417F Cirripedia 2:401T Cirsium arvense 1:75 Cirsium hydrophilum 4:361, 4:363 Cirsium vulgare 3:703 ciscoes 3:464–465 Cis dentatus 7:220T Cissus gongyloides 4:289T Cisticola carruthersi 1:53–54 Cistus 4:72, 5:218 Citedolor strepera 3:365–366 cities biodiversity commodification 4:142 demographic transition 4:231–232 dependence interactions biodiversity 4:237 ecosystem services 4:237–238, 4:238F general discussion 4:237 ecological footprint analysis (EFA) 2:707 environmental impact ecosystem services 4:235 general discussion 4:234–235 habitat loss and fragmentation 4:234–235 positive impacts 4:236–237 protected area systems 4:235–236, 4:235F geographic distribution 4:235F human-dominated techno-ecosystem 3:60–63 management strategies ecosystem services 4:239F, 4:241–242 general discussion 4:238–241 rural-to-urban migration 4:240–241F, 4:242 sustainable development 4:239–241, 4:239F population trends 4:231, 4:231F rural-to-urban migration 4:232–234, 4:233F size distribution 4:561F world-at-night map 4:561F Citisus scoparius 6:443 Citrullus lanatus 2:662–663 citrus crops 2:383, 2:384F, 2:663, 3:32F civets 1:686, 4:693 clades, definition of 2:47 cladistics 2:33–45 basic concepts character types 2:33F, 2:34–35, 7:104–106, 7:105F cladistic systematization 7:104–106, 7:104T, 7:105F, 7:105T cladograms 2:33F, 2:36, 2:36F, 2:52–53, 2:52F, 2:53F, 7:91–93 Hennigian terminology 7:91–93 parsimony 2:33F, 2:35–36, 2:35F, 6:17 phylogenetic trees 2:33F, 2:34F, 2:36, 2:36F, 2:52F, 2:53F, 7:91–93 relationships 2:33–35, 2:33F, 2:34F, 2:52–53, 2:52F, 2:53F characters character coding 2:38–39, 2:39T character recognition 2:37 character types 2:33F, 2:34–35, 2:37, 7:104–106, 7:105F homology 2:37 phylogenetic evidence 2:37–38, 2:38F, 2:38T research background 2:36–37 cladistic analysis biogeography 7:344–345, 7:344F character polarization 2:39–40 cladogram construction 2:39, 7:108, 7:108F, 7:109T cladogram rooting 2:39–40 ontogenetic criteria 2:40 optimization processes 2:40–41, 2:41F outgroup comparisons 2:40 progression rule 7:344F, 7:345–346, 7:346F, 7:347F cladistic biogeography basic concepts 7:344–345, 7:344F component analysis 7:348–349, 7:349, 7:349F, 7:350F, 7:350T dispersal biogeography 2:555 Heterandria 605 cladistic analysis 7:348, 7:348F, 7:349–351, 7:350F endemic analysis 7:349–351, 7:350F geographical distribution 7:348F progression rule 7:345–346, 7:346F, 7:347F research summary 7:351 Xiphophorus cladistic analysis 7:348, 7:348F, 7:349–351, 7:350F endemic analysis 7:349–351, 7:350F geographical distribution 7:348F cladogram evaluation biogeographical analysis 2:555, 7:344–345, 7:344F character fit 2:35F, 2:41–42 character weighting 2:35F, 2:42 component analysis 7:348–349, 7:349, 7:349F, 7:350F, 7:350T consensus cladograms/trees 2:42–44, 2:43F consistency index (CI) 2:41–42 group support 2:44 lineage hierarchy 7:108, 7:108F, 7:109T rescaled consistency index 2:42 Southern Hemisphere ecosystems 6:614 systematics 7:87 definition 2:33–34 historical background 7:104–106 partitioned analysis 2:44–45, 2:45F simultaneous analysis 2:44–45, 2:45F systematics 7:87 Cladium jamaicense 7:372, 7:385, 7:399 Cladocera eutrophication impacts 3:362 extinction vulnerability 2:416–417T lake and pond ecosystems 4:371–373, 4:374F, 4:459 number of species 3:182T, 4:371T wetland ecosystems 7:389–391 cladogenesis 2:46–57 basic concepts 2:47–48, 2:48F, 6:620, 6:621F definition 2:47 diversification evolutionary theories 2:46–47 speciation 2:47 synthetic theory 2:47 evolutionary rates fossil record 2:54–55 molecular evolution deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 2:56–57, 2:56F hemoglobin 2:55–56, 2:55F, 2:55T morphological evolution 2:54–55, 2:54F importance 2:56–57 patterns of life 2:53–54 systematic classifications branching diagrams 2:49–51, 2:49F, 2:50F, 2:51F, 2:52F, 7:87, 7:88F cladograms 2:52–53, 2:52F, 2:53F, 7:91–93 evolutionary systematics 2:51–52, 2:52F, 7:101–102, 7:102F grades 2:51–52, 2:52F