648 Index ecosystems (continued) research summary 5:115 survival probabilities 5:47 symbiotic relationships 5:116–126 bioluminescence 5:121–123, 5:122F fish 5:123 functional roles 5:117–118 future challenges 5:125 global distribution 5:117F historical research 5:116–117 light-producing symbioses 5:121–123, 5:122F nutrient-exchange mutualisms 5:118–120 protective compound production 5:124–125 sponges 5:124–125, 5:124F squid 5:123–124 structural characteristics 5:116–117, 5:117F transmission modes 5:116–117, 5:117F threatened birds 7:181 threats and challenges biodiversity loss 5:113–114 eutrophication 5:113F, 5:114 exotic species invasions 5:113F, 5:114 fishing impacts 5:113–114, 5:113F global climate change 5:113F, 5:114–115 habitat destruction and degradation 5:113F, 5:114 pollution 5:113F, 5:114 shoreline modifications 5:113F, 5:114 trophic levels 5:46–47, 5:48F, 5:49F, 5:50–51 Mediterranean-type climate ecosystems 5:212–222 Australia physical characteristics 5:220–221 vascular plant diversity 5:213T, 5:221 vertebrate diversity 5:213T, 5:221 California natural disturbances 5:213–214 physical characteristics 5:213T, 5:214–215 speciation patterns 5:214 species richness 5:213T vascular plant diversity 5:215 vertebrate diversity 5:213T, 5:215 Cape Region (South Africa) physical characteristics 5:219 vascular plant diversity 5:213T, 5:219–220 vertebrate diversity 5:213T, 5:220 characteristics 5:212–213 Chile natural disturbances 5:213–214 physical characteristics 5:213T, 5:215–216 speciation patterns 5:214 species richness 5:213T vascular plant diversity 5:216–217 vertebrate diversity 5:213T, 5:217 global distribution 5:213F, 5:213T Mediterranean Basin physical characteristics 5:217–218 vascular plant diversity 5:218 vertebrate diversity 5:213T, 5:218–219 natural disturbances 5:213–214 physical characteristics 5:213T speciation patterns 5:214 species richness 5:213T summary discussion 5:221–222 Near East 5:478–487 animal diversity 5:459–477 agricultural practices 5:475–477 biodiversity extent 5:459–460, 5:460T dry conditions 5:466–467 endemic versus widespread animals 5:463–464, 5:464F, 5:464T freshwater fish diversity 5:470–471, 5:470F, 5:470T, 5:471F habitat destruction 5:472, 5:473F historic zoogeography 5:460–463, 5:461F, 5:462F, 5:463T human impact 5:471–472 hunting impacts 5:472 influencing factors 5:464–467 Oriental representatives 5:462–463, 5:463T poisoning 5:473–475 rainfall factors 5:465–467, 5:465F, 5:466T sand adaptability 5:467–469, 5:468F substratum 5:467–469, 5:467F, 5:468F vegetation 5:469–470, 5:469F climate dew and fog 5:479–480 rainfall 5:465–467, 5:465F, 5:466T, 5:479, 5:480F temperature regimes 5:480 edaphic conditions 5:478–479 flora 5:480–481, 5:481T geographical subdivisions 5:478, 5:479F geomorphology 5:478–479 Levant region 5:459, 5:459F, 5:460T rock types 5:478–479 topography 5:478 vegetation Ceratonia siliqua open forests 5:480F, 5:482–483 deserts 5:480F, 5:485–486 desert savannoid vegetation 5:480F, 5:486 dryland vegetation patterns 5:484 general discussion 5:481–482 mangroves 5:480F, 5:487 maquis/forests 5:480F, 5:481–482 Mediterranean savannoid vegetation 5:480F, 5:483 Mt Hermon montane forest 5:480F, 5:482 Mt Hermon tragacanth vegetation 5:480F, 5:483–484 Pistacia lentiscus open forests 5:480F, 5:482–483 Quercus calliprinos woodlands 5:480F, 5:482 Quercus ithaburensis open forests 5:480F, 5:482 reed thickets 5:480F, 5:486 sand vegetation 5:480F, 5:486 semisteppe bathas 5:480F, 5:483 shrub–steppes 5:480F, 5:484–485 shrub–steppes with trees 5:480F, 5:485 Sudanian tree oases 5:480F, 5:486 swamps 5:480F, 5:486 synanthropic vegetation 5:480F, 5:486–487 wet salinas 5:480F, 5:486 Ziziphus lotus 5:480F, 5:483 New Zealand 1:149T North America 1:149T ocean ecosystems characteristics basic organization 5:587F distinguishing characteristics 5:587–588 shared characteristics 5:586–587 global change impacts 5:588–589 historical research 5:582 natural functioning units biome concept 5:583 challenges 5:582–583 coastal upwelling 5:584T, 5:585T, 5:586, 5:586T Eastern Boundary Current 5:584T, 5:585T, 5:586, 5:586T ecosystem concept 5:583–586, 5:584T, 5:585T, 5:586T equatorial upwelling 5:583–586, 5:584T, 5:585T, 5:586T low-latitutde gyre 5:583, 5:584T, 5:585T, 5:586T Southern Ocean 5:583, 5:584T, 5:585T, 5:586T subarctic gyre 5:584T, 5:585T, 5:586, 5:586T Oceania 1:149T paleoecology 5:645–655 data collection and interpretation 5:645–646 goals and objectives 5:645–646 Quaternary data 5:645 research methodologies age models 5:652–653 dating uncertainties 5:652 mapping intervals 5:652–653 scaling factors 5:646–649, 5:648F, 5:649F space–time variations 5:646–649, 5:647F, 5:648F, 5:649F spatial characteristics 5:648F, 5:649–650, 5:649F, 5:651F taxonomic and numerical characteristics 5:646–649, 5:647F, 5:648F, 5:649F temporal characteristics 5:650–652, 5:651F temporal resolution 5:652 zoom lens perspective 5:647F, 5:648F, 5:649F, 5:651F, 5:653–654 pelagic ecosystems 5:683–691 benthic biomass distribution 4:380–381, 4:380F