692 Index habitats (continued) precise conceptualization 4:53–54 spatial extent 4:52 biodiversity loss 4:564, 4:565F, 4:566F, 4:662, 4:663 biodiversity-rich countries 1:501–502 characteristics 3:405–406 climate change effects 2:58–59, 2:80, 3:221, 3:408, 4:56, 6:62 crop wild relatives (CWRs) 6:77 dispersal barriers 3:405–406 edge effects 3:406 endangered freshwater invertebrates 3:180–181, 3:180F endangered mammals 3:190 environmental impacts 3:283–284 fish species 3:447–448 forest management impact 1:452–453 fragmentation effects 4:50, 4:52F freshwater invertebrates 4:376–377 general effects advantages/disadvantages 4:54–55 anthropogenic-caused environmental effects 4:56, 5:318 extinction probability 4:54 loss versus fragmentation 4:54, 4:54F migration impacts 5:318 mobility–habitat specialization–matrix quality interactions 4:55–56 reproductive rates 4:55 species richness reduction 4:54 global agriculture impacts 3:427, 3:428T, 4:154 global urbanization impact 4:234–235 infectious disease incidence 1:361–362, 1:363F infectious diseases 2:531 interspecific interactions 3:406 landscape changes 4:496–497 landscape genetics 4:516–517 land use issues 4:564, 4:565F, 4:566F loss effects 4:50, 4:51F marine sedimentary habitats 5:113F, 5:114 migration impacts 5:318 pollution 3:181, 3:181F predation effects 6:237–239 research summary 4:56 terrestrial invertebrates 3:220–221 threatened birds 7:183 tropical forests 3:405–406, 3:405F wetlands 7:371T habitat modification general discussion 4:359 grazing and rooting 4:359 introduced animals 4:364–365 introduced plants 4:364 modified fire regimes 4:360 modified hydrology 4:360 modified nutrient regime 4:360 shading and overgrowth 4:359–360 habitat–niche relationship 4:39–49 basic concepts 4:39–40, 4:40F conservation and management practices 4:47–48 ecological character displacement 4:46–47, 4:46F, 4:47F evolutionary development 4:46–47 food resources 4:44F future research outlook 4:48 historical perspective 4:42 indirect interactions 4:45–46 multispecies comparisons 4:42–45, 4:42F, 4:43F, 4:44F, 4:45F mutualistic interactions 4:45 representative species 4:41T habitat selection 4:59–69 analytical methods animal movement models 4:64 general discussion 4:63 linear and logistic regression models 4:63 utilization distributions 4:63–64 animal location measurements direct visual observations 4:60–61, 4:60F telemetry techniques 4:60F, 4:62 trapping methods 4:60F, 4:61–62 visual and auditory surveys 4:60F, 4:61 basic concepts 4:59–60 emotional responses 1:41–42 environmental variable measurements 4:62–63 inference methods basic concepts 4:64 habitat availability 4:65–66, 4:65F limitations 4:64–65 locational imprecision 4:67 scale and resolution 4:66, 4:67F selection decisions 4:65 spatial and temporal autocorrelation 4:66–67 location techniques 4:59–60, 4:60F research summary 4:67–68 high-elevation Andean ecosystems 4:96–97 international conservation organizations 4:325–326 landscape ecology 4:488–502 population dynamics basic concepts 4:488–491 continuous habitat variability 4:497–498, 4:498F core and satellite model 4:496 disturbance recovery 4:498–499, 4:499F edge effects 4:496–497 environmental gradients 4:497–498 extinction debt 4:497 habitat fragmentation 4:496–497 habitat heterogeneity 1:381–382, 1:381F, 4:497–498 habitat preservation 4:495 immigration 4:495 interspecific interactions 4:498–499, 4:499F landscape changes 4:496–497 landscape context 4:493 landscape structure 4:491–493 metapopulation dynamics 4:495–496 patch–matrix–corridor model 4:479, 4:479F, 4:492–493, 4:492F population viability analysis (PVA) 4:493–495 quantification methods 4:493 research summary 4:499–500 simulation models 4:488–491, 4:490F, 4:491F single large or several small (SLOSS) debate 4:495 soil moisture prediction 4:497–498, 4:498F source–sink dynamics 4:496, 5:324–325 spatial patterns 4:488–491, 4:489F mangrove habitat 5:10–11, 5:10F marine sedimentary habitats deep-sea habitats 5:108 intertidal habitats 5:107, 5:108T ocean depth ranges 5:107, 5:107F subtidal habitats 5:107–108 natural habitats 1:381 Near East ecosystems habitat destruction coastal sand dunes 5:472, 5:473F riverine habitats 5:473 swamps 5:472–473, 5:474F, 5:475T temporary winter rain pools 5:473, 5:476F wetland habitats 5:472–473 noncrop habitats 1:380–381 planktonic communities 6:27–28, 6:28F, 6:29F pollution-based habitat degradation air pollution acid rain 3:407, 3:407F lichen tolerance 3:407 ozone depletion 3:407 smog 3:407 ultraviolet radiation 3:407 characteristics 3:406 pesticides 3:406 water pollution 3:406–407 species richness diversity–productivity relationship 2:597–599, 2:598F prediction limitations 2:599 species–energy theory 2:596–597, 2:597T Volterra–Gause perspective 2:595–596 sustainability trends 7:82F terrestrial subterranean habitats 7:50–51 Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) models 2:218 hachetfish 3:465 Hadaway, Hunter 2:690–691 haddock 3:466–467 Hadenoecus subterraneus 7:60 Hadesia vasiceki vasiceki 7:58 Hadley cells 2:458 Hadogenes troglodytes 1:207–208 Hadrobregmus pertinax 7:218–219 Hadropithecus 5:365 Hadrosauridae 2:520T Hadrosaurus 2:519T Haeckel, Ernst 4:652, 5:581–582, 7:87