812 Index South America (continued) high-elevation Andean ecosystems 4:96–110 background information 4:96 geographic distribution 4:96–97, 4:97F habitat characteristics 4:96–97 number of species 4:102T pa´ramo ecosystem characteristics 4:101–103, 7:275–276 geographic distribution 4:96–97, 4:97F northern Andean alpine cushion formations 4:103 northern Andean dwarf Polylepis forest 4:103 number of species 4:102T physical characteristics and patterns 4:97–98 plant diversity 4:98–99, 4:99T representative species 4:102F subpa´ramo zone 4:102–103 superpa´ramo zone 4:103 true pa´ramo zone 4:103 physical characteristics and patterns 4:97–98 plant diversity endemism 4:99–100, 4:99T origins and diversification 4:100–101 species richness 4:98–99 puna central Andean dwarf Polylepis forest 4:105 cushion bogs 4:105 desert puna 4:104–105 dry puna 4:104 geographic distribution 4:96–97, 4:97F humid puna 4:104 number of species 4:102T physical characteristics and patterns 4:97–98, 4:103–104 plant diversity 4:98–99 representative species 4:104F salar vegetation 4:105 research summary 4:107 southern Andean steppes altitudinal zonation 4:106–107, 4:106F bogs and seeps 4:107 cushion plants 4:106–107, 4:106F geographic distribution 4:96–97, 4:97F latitudinal gradients 4:106–107 number of species 4:102T physical characteristics and patterns 4:97–98, 4:105–107 plant diversity 4:98–99 representative species 4:105F intercropping 2:382–383 invasive species 4:350–351 land-use trends 4:559F late Quaternary extinction event (LQEE) 4:658F, 4:723F, 4:726–727, 4:727T latitudinal gradients 1:498F, 1:499T logging operations 2:454T mammalian extinctions 4:705T mammals 2:582–583, 2:583F, 4:701T marsupials 4:683 mass extinctions 5:6–7 megaherbivores 5:224T, 5:225T, 5:232F myriapods 5:429T native crops 2:663–664 natural history museums and institutions 5:405–406 Neartic–Neotropical transition zone 2:585F neotropical mammals 2:582–594 background information 2:582–583 biogeographical–macroecological patterns areographic patterns 2:588–589 ecogeographic rules 2:588–589 latitudinal diversity 2:588F species richness 2:588, 2:589F, 2:591F conservation strategies 2:591–592 evolutionary history 2:582–583, 2:583F future research outlook 2:592 Great American Biotic Interchange (GABI) 2:582–583, 2:584F harvesting threats 2:590T major threats 2:589–592, 2:590T zoogeographic regions biogeographical limits 2:583–585, 2:585F group diversity and classifications 2:585–586 representative species 2:586–587, 2:587F transition zones 2:583–585, 2:585F neotropical seasonally dry forests 5:493T, 5:495F, 5:497F nonvascular epiphytes 3:521T oil-palm plantations 5:602 parasitic infections 5:671T plant invasions 6:93 protected area systems 6:491T, 6:492T, 6:493F, 6:494F, 6:494T regional carbon stocks 1:678F regional cultivars 3:32F temperate forests distribution patterns 7:116T, 7:117 diversity patterns 7:119–121, 7:119T dominant floristic features 7:119 endemism 7:121 threatened birds 7:181 transboundary protected areas 6:489T tropical forests 7:269–270, 7:270T tropical rain forests distribution 6:324T loss and change 6:324T mammals 2:591F model-based assessments 6:324T species richness loss 6:328T vascular epiphytes 3:520T South American otter 4:143, 5:477 South American palm weevil 5:603–604 South Asia botanical gardens 6:505–506, 6:506T, 6:507F, 6:510T deforestation 1:677F, 2:448T, 2:449T, 2:451T forest product exports 2:451T indigenous peoples 4:269T nitrogen deposition 5:526T protected area systems 6:491T, 6:492T, 6:493F, 6:494F, 6:494T regional carbon stocks 1:678F regional cultivars 3:32F temperate forests distribution patterns 7:116T, 7:117 dominant floristic features 7:118 South Atlantic Gyre 5:45 South Chinese rain forest 1:262–263T Southeast Asia 1:509–527 biodiversity threats climate change 1:517 emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) 1:521 illegal wildlife trade 1:517–518, 1:518F, 1:519F industrialized agriculture 1:517, 1:519F, 1:520F invasive species 1:518–520, 1:521, 1:522F, 4:346–347 overexploitation 1:517–518 wildfires 1:517 botanical gardens 6:505–506, 6:506T, 6:507F, 6:510T C4 plants 2:371T challenges and opportunities biodiversity conservation 1:520–521 forest restoration 1:521–522 protected area systems 1:520 definition 1:509 deforestation 1:509–510, 1:677F, 2:447–448, 2:448T, 2:449T, 4:562–564, 4:563F habitat loss and degradation blackwater streams 1:512–513 conservation strategies 1:513 freshwater habitats 1:510–512, 1:511F lowland rainforests 1:509–510 mangrove ecosystems 1:513, 1:513T montane forests 1:510 peat swamp forests 1:512–513 recovery prospects 1:513 rivers and streams 1:510–512, 1:511F, 1:512F indigenous peoples 4:269T invasive species 1:518–520, 1:521, 1:522F, 4:346–347 native crops 2:663 nitrogen deposition 5:526T oil-palm plantations 1:540–541, 5:601–602 polyculture cropping systems 7:231 protected area systems 6:491T, 6:492T, 6:493F, 6:494F, 6:494T regional carbon stocks 1:678F regional cultivars 3:32F species status and trends amphibians 1:515 birds 1:516 insects 1:514–515 mammals 1:516–517 plants 1:514, 1:514T reptiles 1:515–516 tropical rain forests 6:314T, 6:316T, 6:317T