Index igapo´ forest 1:163–164 lakes 1:164 mangrove forests 1:164 permanent swamps 1:164 pirizal 1:164 seasonal flooding 1:162–163 va´rzea forest 1:163 habitat loss and degradation 7:371T river–floodplain connectivity 7:144–160 benefits 7:144, 7:145–146 changes and conversion impacts 7:150–151, 7:151F ecological processes 7:145 ecosystem services benefits 7:145–146, 7:150 fisheries 7:146–147 flood attenuation 7:147–150, 7:148F, 7:149F floodplain agriculture 7:146 flow levels and events 7:150 hydrological connectivity 7:150 overbank flooding 7:145–146 spatial variables 7:150 floodplain reconnection and conservation ecosystem restoration 7:153 flood-risk reduction programs 7:154–155, 7:156F, 7:157F general discussion 7:152–153 livelihood restoration 7:153–154 multipurpose reservoir flexibility 7:155–156, 7:156F, 7:157F restoration strategies 7:152–153 future research outlook 7:156–158 geomorphic processes 7:145 hydrological processes 7:145 key floodplain processes 7:144–145 land and water management challenges flood control issues 7:152 flood risks 7:152 freshwater biological diversity and productivity declines 7:151 general discussion 7:151 river-dependent communities impacts 7:151–152 research summary 7:156–158 floods El Nin˜o Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events 3:159 flooded forests 7:272 flooded grasslands 6:600–604T flood management systems 5:452, 5:452–453, 5:453T plant biodiversity threats 6:62–63 river–floodplain connectivity 7:147–150, 7:148F, 7:149F tropical forest regeneration 7:277–278 wetland ecosystems 7:399–400 flora see plants; vegetation floral nectar spurs 6:47–48 Floridaceras 5:224T Florida Everglades (case study) 7:372, 7:372F, 7:373F Florida panther 3:190–191, 3:192, 6:212 Florida scrub jays 7:186–187 floristic geobotany 4:396T flounder 3:467–471 flour beetles (Tribolium) interspecific competition environmental conditions 2:184 single-species results 2:184, 2:184T two-species results 2:184–185, 2:185F, 2:185T Flourensia cernua 1:708 flower flies 3:489–491T, 3:492 flowering dogwood 2:528T, 3:411, 3:411F flowering plants 5:613–627 Antarctica 1:184T background information 5:613 characteristics 6:60 diversification analytical methodologies 5:619–620 historical patterns 5:625–626 major events ASTERID I and ASTERID II Clades diversification 5:622F, 5:625 ASTERID III and ASTERID IV Clades diversification 5:622F, 5:625 early diversification events 5:620–621, 5:621F, 5:622F general discussion 5:620–621 Rosid Clade diversification 5:621–625, 5:623F, 5:624F molecular clock-based models 5:619–620 research background 5:614 emotional responses 1:41–42 number of species 6:58T origins fossil record challenges 5:615 early angiosperms 5:617–619 general discussion 5:615–617 nineteenth century research 5:613–614 Phanerozoic 3:686–687, 3:687F potential angiosperm sister groups 5:615–617, 5:616F, 5:617F, 5:618F phylogenetic and morphological studies 5:614–615, 5:618F research background 5:613–614 research summary 5:619 parasites 5:662 tourism industry 7:223 flower-loving flies 3:489–491T fluazifop-butyl 5:697 flukes 2:645 flumiclorac 4:90T Fluorencia thurifera 3:116 fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) 5:261, 5:264T, 5:267 fluorine (F) chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) atmospheric concentrations 1:282T changing concentrations 1:284–286, 1:286F climate impact 1:281–282, 3:450 ecotoxicology 3:118–119 enhanced greenhouse effect 4:19T environmental ethics 3:271 ozone depletion 7:296–297 671 hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) 1:284–286, 4:19T perfluorocarbons (PFCs) 1:284–286 fluridone 4:90T flutriafol 5:695 Fluvisols 2:461–464 flycatchers 2:189–190, 2:189F flying fish 3:467 flying foxes 4:447, 4:691–692 flying lemurs 4:691 flying squirrels 4:701T Foeniculum vulgare 2:383 fog 5:479–480 Fokienia 1:272–273 folk taxonomies 1:121, 7:100–101 Fondo de Agua Por La Vida y La Sostenibilidad (FAVS) 7:362–363 Fondo para la Conservacio´n del Aguaor (FONAG) 7:355–357, 7:361–362 fonio 2:659, 2:663 Fontaria virginiensis 5:424–425 Fontigens bottimeri 7:59 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act (1990) 3:719, 6:597–598 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 1:640–642, 1:641, 3:643, 4:328, 4:567, 6:77–78, 6:322, 6:422–423, 6:597–598 foodborne trematodes 5:671T food caching 1:688 food chains ecosystem function measurements 3:78, 3:80F energy flow 3:244–245 living dead 4:595–596 marine ecosystems 5:50–51 nutrient cycling 3:244–245 schematic diagram 3:497F thermal ecosystems 4:118–119 trophic interactions 5:46–47, 7:264, 7:265F food crops 1:542–543, 1:542F Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA) 4:90–91 food habits 3:127–128, 3:127T Food Security Act (1985) 3:719, 6:597–598 foods/food selection 1:42–43, 1:42T food spices 2:432–433 food webs 3:497–510 allochthonous inputs 3:505 classifications characteristics 3:498–500 connectivity webs 3:498–500, 3:499F, 3:500F energetic webs 3:499F, 3:500–501, 3:507–508 functional/interaction webs 3:499F, 3:501–502 community complexity 2:209–210 dietary shifts 3:506 ecosystem services 3:90T El Nin˜o Southern Oscillation (ENSO) 5:687–688, 5:689F energy flow 3:237–238 eutrophication impacts 3:582–583, 5:24–25