Modelling of CO2 release from high pressure pipelines

University of Wollongong Research Online University of Wollongong Thesis Collection 1954-2016 University of Wollongong Thesis Collections 2016 Modelling of CO2 release from high pressure pipelines Bin Liu University of Wollongong Follow this and additional works at: https://ro.uow.edu.au/theses University of Wollongong Copyright Warning You may print or download ONE copy of this document for the purpose of your own research or study The University does not authorise you to copy, communicate or otherwise make available electronically to any other person any copyright material contained on this site You are reminded of the following: This work is copyright Apart from any use permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part of this work may be reproduced by any process, nor may any other exclusive right be exercised, without the permission of the author Copyright owners are entitled to take legal action against persons who infringe their copyright A reproduction of material that is protected by copyright may be a copyright infringement A court may impose penalties and award damages in relation to offences and infringements relating to copyright material Higher penalties may apply, and higher damages may be awarded, for offences and infringements involving the conversion of material into digital or electronic form Unless otherwise indicated, the views expressed in this thesis are those of the author and not necessarily represent the views of the University of Wollongong Recommended Citation Liu, Bin, Modelling of CO2 release from high pressure pipelines, Doctor of Philosophy thesis, School of Mechanical, Materials and Mechatronic Engineering, University of Wollongong, 2016 https://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/4950 Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong For further information contact the UOW Library: research-pubs@uow.edu.au Modelling of CO2 release from high pressure pipelines A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Bin Liu from Faculty of Engineering and Information Sciences, University of Wollongong August 2016 Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia I Thesis Certification I, Bin Liu, declare that this thesis, submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy, at the School of Mechanical, Materials and Mechatronic Engineering, University of Wollongong, is wholly my own work unless otherwise referenced or acknowledged The document has not been submitted for qualification at any other academic institution Bin Liu Feb 2017 II ABSTRACT Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is widely seen as an effective technique to reduce what are perceived to be excessive concentrations of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere In the CCS chain, transportation of CO2 through high-pressure pipelines constitutes an important link Although CO2 pipelines are generally very safe, an unplanned release of CO2 from a pipeline presents a potential risk to human and animal populations as well as the environment Therefore, to facilitate the risk assessment, it is necessary to gain a better understanding of CO2 releases from high-pressure pipelines, including the prediction of depressurisation of the pipe flow, the near-field atmospheric expansion and the far-field atmospheric dispersion An accurate prediction of CO2 depressurisation following pipeline fracture is crucial for the design and operation for CCS, which requires the consideration of a number of complex and interacting phenomena, such as the sharp drop of pressure and temperature, and the delayed nucleation or delayed bubble formation Usually, this analysis consists of a one-dimensional decompression model that describes the conservation of mass, momentum and energy The fluid is usually considered to remain in thermal and mechanical equilibrium during the depressurisation process, while the non-equilibrium liquid/vapour transition phenomena are ignored Although efforts have been made to model non-equilibrium two-phase CO2 depressurisation in recent years, possible improvement can be made by using a more precise Equation of State (EOS) and more detailed models Moreover, artificial CO2 tend to contain some impurities, which can modify the behaviour of depressurisation significantly due to the dramatic change in properties However, there seems to be no comprehensive model coupling with non-equilibrium phenomena, precise EOS and impurities in open publication to date In this thesis, a multi-phase CO2 pipeline decompression model using Computational Fluid III Dynamics (CFD) techniques is presented The GERG-2008 EOS is employed to describe the properties of vapour and liquid phases A phase change model using a mass transfer coefficient to control the inter-phase mass transfer rate is implemented into the CFD code By varying the mass transfer coefficient, the effect of non-equilibrium phenomena (delayed nucleation) on the decompression wave speed can be investigated The proposed multi-phase CFD decompression model is validated against the experimental data from ‘shock tube’ tests The performance of the proposed model is also compared with that of the ‘Homogeneous Equilibrium Model’ (HEM) In addition, the influence of delayed nucleation on CO2 and CO2 mixture decompression characteristics is discussed and the optimum mass transfer coefficients for pure CO2 and CO2 mixture are obtained Also, the influence of the impurities on the depressurisation process is investigated in this study The results show that the nonequilibrium phenomenon has a great effect on both CO2 and CO2 mixture pipe flow Moreover, the atmospheric expansion is investigated in this study to provide the boundary conditions for the dispersion simulation Two methods are involved One is the CFD method, which could provide more details The other is an analytical model, which could avoid resolving the high pressure gradients as well as possible dry ice formation In addition, the heavy gas dispersion model is proposed using the CFD method Several CO2 dispersion experiments are simulated to validate the CFD model Dispersion with two typical release directions is investigated One is vertical release and the other hypothetical release direction is horizontal The latter is considered as the worst case scenario In the study of vertical release, hypothetical release rates are used CFD models for CO2 dispersion over complex terrains are proposed Four representative terrain types (a flat terrain with one hill, a flat terrain with two hills, as urban area and a real terrain in Australia) are employed to investigate terrain effects on dispersion behaviour The results indicate that terrain features, IV combined with the weather conditions, have significant influences on the pattern of CO2 dispersion In the study of horizontal release, the release rate was obtained from the depressurisation model The results show that, for horizontal pipe releases, the consequence distances are affected by the non-equilibrium effect during phase change in the pipeline However, the influence of wind speed and stagnation pressure on the consequence distance is not so significant Increase in wind speed or stagnation pressure leads to a longer consequence distance for horizontal release In contrast, the effects of pipe diameters on the consequence distance are considerable V ACKNOWLEDEGMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to all the people who give me support and help during my research life I appreciate my supervisors – Associate Professor Cheng Lu and Professor Anh Kiet Tieu for their support, advice and guidance My sincere and special thanks go to Dr Xiong Liu for his considerable support and valuable advice during the simulation work, as well as his suggestions during the research and in revising the manuscript Also, I would like to thank other members and staffs in Energy Pipeline Cooperative Research Centre (EPCRC), Australia, who have made this thesis possible This work was carried out at the School of Mechanical, Material and Mechatronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Wollongong I would like to thank all my colleagues and fellow PhD students for their precious advice and help during the research The funding and in-kind support from the EPCRC is gratefully acknowledged Sincere thanks to Scholarship from China Scholarship Council (CSC) and the University of Wollongong Also, I appreciate my supervisor Cheng Lu for his grant for my living costs during the study Finally, my deepest regards to my family members Without their support and love I could not have completed this research I dedicate this thesis to them VI TABLE OF CONTENTS Thesis Certification II ABSTRACT III ACKNOWLEDEGMENTS .VI TABLE OF CONTENTS VII List of Figures X List of Tables XIV Nomenclature XV Publications XVIII Chapter Introduction 1.1 Background 1.2 Research objectives and activities Chapter Literature review 13 2.1 Equation of State 15 2.1.1 RK EOS 17 2.1.2 Peng-Robinson EOS 19 2.1.3 Span & Wagner EOS 20 2.1.4 GERG EOSs 20 2.1.5 Composite EOS 21 2.1.6 Comparison of EOSs 22 2.2 CO2 Pipeline decompression 23 2.2.1 Shock tube tests 23 2.2.2 Decompression models 25 2.3 Source strength prediction models 31 2.3.1 Equation for the choked exit condition 32 2.3.2 Wilson’s method [84] 33 2.3.3 Morrow model [85] 34 2.3.4 Phast modules 35 2.3.5 EPCRC model 38 2.4 Expansion to atmospheric pressure 40 2.5 Phase change models 43 2.5.1 The process of phase change during the release and dispersion 43 2.5.2 Phase change models based on temperature relaxation 45 VII 2.5.3 The phase change models based on energy 47 2.5.4 Phase change models based on pressure relaxation involving with CO2 49 2.6 Dispersion models 51 2.6.1 “Gassian-based” models 51 2.6.2 “Similarity-profile” models 52 2.6.3 CFD dispersion model 59 2.7 Knowledge gaps 66 2.8 Summary 66 Chapter Multi-phase decompression modelling of pure CO2 considering non-equilibrium phase transfer 68 3.1 Introduction 69 3.2 Methodology 72 3.2.1 Computational domain 72 3.2.2 The mixture multi-phase model 73 3.2.3 Numerical Methods 75 3.2.4 Thermodynamic property modelling 76 3.2.5 Source terms 77 3.3 Results and discussion 79 3.4 Summary 101 Chapter Multi-phase decompression modelling of CO2 mixture considering nonequilibrium phase transfer 103 4.1 Introduction 104 4.2 Methodology 105 4.3 Results and discussion 107 4.4 Summary 119 Chapter CFD simulation of under-expanded CO2 jet 121 5.1 Introduction 122 5.2 Simulation model 123 5.3 Air jet using user-defined real gas model 123 5.4 CO2 jet using PR EOS 129 5.5 Summary 133 Chapter CFD simulation of CO2 dispersion in a complex environment 135 6.1 Introduction 136 6.2 Numerical methods 139 VIII 6.3 Experimental validation 142 6.3.1 CO2 dispersion experiment carried out by Xing et al [153] 142 6.3.2 Simulation of Kit Fox experiment 148 6.3.3 Simulation of Thorney Island experiment 158 6.4 CFD Models for dispersion over complex terrains 165 6.4.1 Modelled terrain types 165 6.4.2 Computational domain and Boundary conditions 167 6.4.3 Initial condition 171 6.5 Results and discussion 172 6.5.1 Simulation results - Terrain A 173 6.5.2 Simulation results - Terrain B 182 6.5.3 Simulation results - Terrain C 182 6.5.4 Simulation results - Terrain D 188 6.6 Summary 190 Chapter Study of the consequence of CO2 released from high-pressure pipeline 193 7.1 Introduction 194 7.2 Methodology 195 7.2.1 Definition of the problem 195 7.2.2 Depressurisation model 196 7.2.3 Expansion model 197 7.2.4 Dispersion model 197 7.3 The influence of non-equilibrium effect on discharge rate and dispersion distance 198 7.4 The influences of initial pressure, wind velocity and pipe diameters on discharge rate and dispersion distance 203 7.5 Summary 205 Chapter Conclusions and Recommendations 206 8.1 Conclusions 207 8.2 Recommendations 210 References 211 IX (a) ID = 38.1 mm (b) ID = 80 mm Figure 7.10 Hazardous cloud of 10% CO2 concentration (top view) in terms of IDs 7.5 Summary In this chapter, a methodology to estimate the consequence distance regarding CO2 horizontal releases from high-pressure pipelines is proposed In order to predict the discharge rate, the GERG-2008 EOS was incorporated into the CFD code, and a multi-phase model applied An analytical model was used to predict the atmospheric expansion Lastly, CFD models were used to simulate the heavy gas dispersion The influences of the value of C, wind velocity, and stagnation pressure on consequence distance were discussed A higher value of C results in lower discharge rate and thus creates a lower consequence distance The influences of wind speed and stagnation pressure on the consequence distance are not so significant Increase in wind speed or stagnation pressure leads to a little longer consequence distance for horizontal release In contrast, the effects of pipe diameters are considerable However, there are still some limitations in this model The effects of friction and heat transfer have not been considered More detailed model may be introduced in further studies 205 Chapter Conclusions and Recommendations 206 8.1 Conclusions CO2 releases from high pressure pipelines were studied in this thesis, including modelling of depressurisation inside the pipeline, atmospheric expansion in the near field and atmospheric dispersion The depressurisation behaviour of CO2 in the pipelines was simulated using a new multiphase model developed using the CFD software, ANSYS Fluent The simulations gave valuable insight into a number of factors that affect the decompression characteristics of pure CO2 and CO2 mixtures The simulation results highlighted the effect of delayed nucleation (delayed bubble formation) on CO2 pipeline decompression GERG-2008 EOS was incorporated into the CFD code to model the thermodynamic properties of CO2 or CO2 mixtures in both liquid and vapour states The inter-phase mass transfer rate was controlled using a mass transfer coefficient in the mass source term An energy source term was introduced for energy balance to take into account the latent heat due to vaporisation The proposed model was validated against a ‘shock tube’ test conducted by Botros et al [46] As the proposed model enabled the simulation of delayed nucleation phenomena during the depressurisation process, the effects of delayed nucleation on the CO2 and CO2 mixture decompression characteristics were investigated In the multi-phase decompression model, if the mass transfer coefficient is fine-tuned, a good agreement with the measurements can be predicted Not only the decompression wave speed during the sharp pressure drop period can be predicted quite well, the plateau pressure and the gradual decrease trend of the plateau can also be successfully simulated On the contrary, HEM tends to over-predict the decompression wave speed during the sharp pressure drop period, and also over-predict the plateau pressure considerably Furthermore, HEM cannot predict the gradual decrease trend of the plateau The delayed nucleation phenomena have significant influence on the 207 decompression wave speed during high-pressure CO2 depressurisation Delayed nucleation results in higher speed of sound and higher decompression wave speed at a relatively high pressure Also, delayed nucleation leads to the fact that the phase change inside the pipeline occurs at a pressure lower than the saturation pressure This may be the reason causing discrepancies in the prediction of decompression wave speed using HEM Simulation results of the shock tube test suggests that the optimum mass transfer coefficient C for a transient CO2 pipeline release should be around 10 s-1, and the optimal value of C is different for the rapid depressurisation period and the plateau According to the plateau pressure, the optimum mass transfer coefficient C for the mixture which contains 94.58% CO2 and 5.42% N2 with a stagnation pressure of 14.011 MPa should be around 50 s-1 The optimum C for the mixture which contains 96.4% CO2 and 3.6% O2 with a stagnation pressure of 14.654 MPa should be around 15 s-1 Impurities in CO2 mixtures affect the delayed nucleation significantly Atmospheric expansion was investigated in this study to provide the boundary conditions for the dispersion simulation Two methods were involved One is the CFD method combined with real gas EOS, which could provide more detail The other one is an analytical model, which could avoid resolving the high pressure gradients as well as the possibility of dry ice formation In part of CFD study, it has been found that the results obtained by the real gas model can correspond to that from the measured well, and also, structure features such as the Mach disc can be captured as well The results show that the temperature drops dramatically during the jet, and velocity profiles upstream and downstream from the Mach disc are quite different CFD models for CO2 dispersion over complex terrains were proposed The models were validated through simulations of CO2 dispersion experiments Four terrain types were employed to investigate the terrain effects on the dispersion behaviour Results of the 208 dispersion over a flat terrain with a hill indicate that the topography affects the dispersion of CO2 significantly The presence of hills downwind of the source may significantly shrink the spread of the CO2 cloud, especially when the wind velocity is high The downwind spread of the CO2 cloud is usually reduced by the presence of a hill and the windward side of the hill experiences higher CO2 concentration A part of the heavy gas goes around the hill, but for higher release velocity, less CO2 spreads laterally This makes the high concentration area around the hill relatively smaller The terrain type and source strength have a combined effect on the dispersion of CO2 For vertical releases, a high CO2 concentration can occur at the hilltop if the source velocity is high enough, because the source strength and wind velocity can help the cloud spread to higher altitudes Leeward of the hill is the safest due to a fact that the CO2 finds it harder to go across the hill, as most of the CO2 on the leeward side is made up of the part that has gone over the hilltop In an urban area, the CO2 cloud is usually trapped in the streets between buildings In the streets, it is more dangerous near the wall, especially near the windward wall The coverage of hazardous area increases with a decrease of building height, as higher buildings lead to less lateral spread of the CO2 cloud Higher buildings may lead to higher ground-level maximum CO2 concentration But when the building is high enough preventing the CO2 cloud from going over the building roof, increasing the building height has little effect on the maximum CO2 concentration Strong winds contribute to the dispersion This was shown in the CO2 dispersion over both terrain types A higher wind velocity leads to quicker dispersion, resulting in a smaller impact area When using the proposed multi-phase CFD model to predict the source strength, for horizontal high-pressure pipeline releases, a higher value of mass transfer coefficient C results in lower discharge rate and thus creates a shorter consequence distance The influences of wind speed and stagnation pressure on the consequence distance is not so significant Increase in wind speed or stagnation pressure leads to a little longer consequence 209 distance for horizontal release In contrast, the effects of pipe diameters are considerable 8.2 Recommendations For future work, it is recommended to find a relationship between the phase transfer coefficient ‘C’ and other factors during the decompression, such as the components in the CO2 mixture, the stagnation pressure and the temperature The effects of other impurities which may exist in CO2 such as CO and CH4 ect on delayed nucleation should be studied indeep The 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