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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY/Exploration 307 Table Indicative costs of exploration (for the year 2003) (all values are in US dollars) Onshore jungle terrain Seismic cost per two dimensional kilometre Seismic cost per three dimensional square kilometre Well cost (to 3500 m) 000 12 000 (but can be significantly higher) million Onshore desert terrain Seismic cost per two dimensional kilometre Seismic cost per three dimensional square kilometre Well cost (to 3500 m) 000 000 1.5 million Onshore urban or agricultural environment Seismic cost per three dimensional square kilometre 12 000 Offshore Seismic cost per two dimensional kilometre Seismic cost per three dimensional square kilometre Well cost (to 3500 m) 600 000 million (but can be significantly higher for deep wells encountering high pressure and high temperature, or in remote locations; up to 25 million) Postscript The development of new exploration techniques continues to improve geologists’ and geophysicists’ understanding of petroleum geology and to increase the efficiency of exploration by allowing wells to be sited more accurately and with a greater chance of success However, even if the geological conditions for the presence of hydrocarbons are promising, exploration remains a high-risk business and investments are made in exploration many years before there is any prospect of producing the oil: those ventures that are successful must generate sufficient profit to pay for the unsuccessful ventures, both past and future Thus, the fiscal framework established by states is vital to the commercial success of any exploration venture The interests of governments wishing to develop their petroleum resources and the interests of companies as risk takers have much in common; petroleum-exploration strategies must take these mutual interests into account See Also Analytical Methods: Gravity Petroleum Geology: Overview; Chemical and Physical Properties; The Petroleum System; Production; Reserves Seismic Surveys Further Reading In a production-sharing agreement, the company carries the exploration risk and funds all the development and operating costs These costs are then recovered from part of the production, known as ‘cost oil’ The remaining ‘profit oil’ is then split in a pre-determined manner between the state and the company A further type of agreement is the service contract, in which the state contracts for a service from the company for which the company receives a fee; this can be, for example, a set fee per barrel produced or a percentage of the hydrocarbons produced while providing the service Petroleum agreements take many forms, are increasingly complex, and are often a combination of elements from the different types The main considerations for the company are the investment at risk, its ability to manage the operations, access to oil in the event of success, and the economic return on the investment Deffeyes KS (2001) Hubbert’s Peak: the Impending World Oil Shortage Princeton: Princeton University Press Gluyas JG and Swarbrick RE (2004) Petroleum Geoscience Oxford: Blackwell Johnson HD and Fisher MJ (1998) North Sea plays: geo logical controls on hydrocarbon distribution In: Glennie KW (ed.) Petroleum Geology of the North Sea: Basic Concepts and Recent Advances, pp 463 547 Oxford: Blackwell Poelchau HS, Baker DR, Hantschel Th, Horsfield B, and Wygrala B (1997) Basin simulation and the design of the conceptual basin model In: Welte DH, Horsfield B, and Baker DR (eds.) Petroleum and Basin Evolution, pp 70 Berlin: Springer Verlag Selley RC (1996) Elements of Petroleum Geology, 2nd edn San Diego: Academic Press Shell Briefing Service (1994) Upstream Essentials London: Shell International Petroleum Company Limited Steinmetz R (ed.) (1992) The Business of Petroleum Ex ploration Treatise of Petroleum Geology Handbook of Petroleum Geology Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum Geologists
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