482 MILITARY GEOLOGY Figure Royal Engineers boring for water in the South Ara bian Federation in 1964 Military geologists from the British re serve army were used to guide such deployments during a time of intermittent conflict ß Crown Copyright/MOD Reproduced with the permission of the Controller of Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, and courtesy of the Royal Engineers Library, Chatham especially trenches, mines, and dugouts (to minimize time, labour, and materials, and the risk of collapse or water inflow), and site selection for standing camps, munition dumps, heavy gun positions, and airfields On demobilization, there were many more German than Allied geologists who returned to civilian life with practical experience in engineering geology From them developed the expertise more fully deployed in World War II (Figure 3) The German army and navy were noted for using geological guidance when planning and constructing major fieldworks, whether fortifications, underground installations and factories, airfields, military bases, or command HQ facilities In addition to the massive fortifications of the West Wall and Atlantic Wall, examples include the successful construction of bomb-proof submarine pens on the coast of Norway at sites with considerable geotechnical problems, such as the instability of beach sands and weak ‘quick’ clays, and active residual stresses and associated rebound-relief structures in the rock formed as a consequence of the region’s glacial and tectonic history Moreover, the Germans successfully located many military installations and critical manufacturing plants underground throughout Europe during the war The British seldom used military geologists for such tasks, except on Gibraltar, where a military geologist was briefly available during 1943 to guide some of the extensive tunnelling work undertaken to enhance the rocky peninsula as a fortress When America entered the war, its military engineers had to operate in terrain which varied from the Figure Geological cross section east west through Vimy Ridge, France, showing a mine tunnel excavated forward from the British lines, mostly in Louvil clays, which provided the quiet, dry, and stable conditions ideal for tunnelling Redrawn, with permission from Blackwell Publishing Ltd., from Rosenbaum MS and Rose EPF (1992) Geology and military tunnels Geology Today 8: 92 98