ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 443 and execution of this vital work is the special responsibility of the geologist, as part of long-term management planning It calls for skills in detailed geological mapping at scales up to 1/250, knowledge of sampling theory and practice, and competence in computerized data manipulation Services to the mining department Clean mining and low production costs depend on physically defining in the greatest detail the three kinds of material in a deposit – waste that must be dumped, payable ore or feed that goes to the processing plant, and marginal material that may be stockpiled for future processing This daily task of the geologist at the working faces finalizes the preliminary outlines predicted from drillholes, sampling and assaying, and contributes also to quality control at the processing plant and towards planned production targets This definitive work is as important to product quality and cost in a cement raw materials quarry as it is in an underground vein gold mine Mining procedures rely also on information from rock mechanics, a specialized subject in which knowledge of the detailed structural geology of the deposit is linked with engineering parameters This overlap with engineering geology occurs also in hydrogeology, as control of groundwater is important in nearly all mining operations Services to mineral processing plants Improvements in mineral recovery and efficiency over the life of a deposit may be brought about not only by processing technology, but by awareness of changes in the geological conditions to which the plant is tuned The geologist is in the best position to forecast and make known changes in run-of-mine deliveries, such as grade and mineral composition of the ore, or clay content of the gangue, that are expected in long-life operations, and which upset the routine best performance of the processing plant Other engineering services Geological advice is often called for, especially in remote mining locations, in selecting sites for buildings, works, tailings disposal, stockpiles, etc., to select the best foundation conditions and especially to ensure that permanent works are not built in places that would sterilize future mineral resources Geologists are also well placed to advise concerning natural hazards such as earthquakes, and landslides in mountainous terrain Even in so curtailed a summary, it must be mentioned that the overall usefulness of applied geology rests heavily on effective communication by geologists with the working industrial community Good personal relationships at all levels are helpful, but clearly written reports that can be readily understood by non-geologists are essential End of Life of Deposit In the environmentally conscious world of the twenty-first century, few mineral deposits are developed to the stage of extraction without a searching environmental impact investigation and statement Similarly, when mineral workings reach the inevitable end of their productive lives, the impact of the closure may be planned so as to reduce deleterious effects and optimize beneficial effects upon the environment and the community that has grown around the deposit For example, the Lihir gold mining project (mentioned in the feasibility study above) has from inception of operations provided finance and facilities for periodic review and action on environmental and community effects Applied geology has entered the new professional field of environmental science in an age of positive and proactive approach Conclusion From time to time ill-founded alarms have arisen that world resources of some minerals will be insufficient to meet mankind’s growing demands An influential, but ill-advised report of the Club of Rome in 1972, for instance, concluded that the limiting factor to world economic growth would be mineral resource deficiencies Led by applied economic geology, exploration within the minerals sector has in practice demonstrated an abundant resource base open to ever-improving mining and processing technologies There is no indication that future needs for traditional and new materials will not be met In a crowded world, the concept of transition to sustainable development has become a serious global issue that geological science is well placed to appreciate In the spirit of this new drive forward, the world’s leading mining companies have proactively organized the Global Mining Initiative, a programme to ensure that the issues relevant to the extractive industries are positively identified and addressed Both the theoretical and practical aspects of economic geology are involved in this broadening framework to its contribution in discovering and extracting the precious non-renewable mineral resources of our world See Also Aggregates Geochemical Exploration Mineral Deposits and Their Genesis Mining Geology: Exploration; Mineral Reserves Petroleum Geology: Exploration; Reserves Plate Tectonics Sedimentary Rocks: Mineralogy and Classification; Banded Iron Formations; Ironstones; Phosphates