INDEX 695 lakes (continued) biological processes biogenic silica 4:556 calcium carbonate (CaCO3) 4:556 diatomite 4:556 organic matter 4:557 borate deposits 3:517 calcium carbonate (CaCC^) 3:523f, 4:556, 4:557, 4:SS8f chemical processes calcium carbonate (CaCO3) 4:557 evaporites 4:557, 4:559f marl 4:557 chert 5:53, 5:58 clay occurrences 1:364 general discussion 4:550 hydrothermal processes 4:558 lacustrine karst 4:680, 4:681f petroleum reservoirs 4:2351 physical processes anoxic environments 4:550-551 beaches 4:552, 4:SS4f, 5:135 currents 4:552f lacustrine deltas 4:552, 4:553f liquefaction 1:5 28t mass failure 4:554 river inflow 4:552, 4:552f seiche 4:SSlf, 4:551-552 spits 4:554f subsurface currents 4:552f, 4:554, 4:555f surface currents 4:554 thermocline 4:551 f turbidites 4:552f, 4:554-556, 4:555f varves 4:554, 4:555f vertical mixing 4:550, 4:55If water-column structure 4:550 playa lakes 3:516f, 3:516-517 rift valleys 5:440f, 5:440-441 sediment analysis 3:21, 3:22f sequence stratigraphy 5:167 tectonic processes 4:558, 4:560f zeolites 3:596, 3:596f Lake Tanganyika 4:551-552, 4:556, 4:558 Lake Turkana l:28f, 1:31 f, 5:481-482 Lake Victoria l:26f Lake Zaysan 1:164-165, l:166f Laki, Iceland 3:322, 5:575? Lakshmi Planum, Venus 5:257, 5:261f Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste 2:160-161, 2:181-182, 2:208-209, 3:176, 4:123 Lambert-Beer Law 1:64 Lambic beers 3:81 Lamington, Papua-New Guinea 5:575? Lament Geological Observatory, Columbia University 3:197 lampreys 2:455, 2:459 lamproites 3:257, 3:259f lamprophyre 3:220?, 3:237? landfills clays See clays groundwater monitoring 2:14-21 carbon dioxide formation 2:14, 2:15f dissolved oxygen concentrations 2:17, 2:19 f gas formation 2:14, 2:14f government regulation 2:14 isotopic analyses carbon isotope concentrations 2:16, 2:l7,2:18f data interpretation 2:17 deuterium concentrations 2:16, 2:17,2:18f general discussion 2:16 oxygen isotope concentrations 2:16, 2:17,2:18f pH2:15, 2:15^ redox level 2:17, 2:19f seasonal variations 2:19, 2:19f in situ passive sampling 2:17 thermal surveys 2:15 volatile organic compounds 2:15, 2:lSf made ground 1:538 sanitary landfills 2:30, 2:30f Land Mammal Age 5:472, 5:473f Landscape Marble, Bristol District, England 4:382, 4:383f landslides 4:687-692 ancient landslides 4:690f, 4:691 angle of repose 4:688, 4:692 Atlantic Margin 4:94f, 4:94-95 catastrophic floods 4:632 classification 4:688, 4:689f creep 3:93, 4:691, 4:691f debris avalanches 4:690-691, 5:573, 5:576?, 5:576f debris flows 3:93, 4:689, 4:690f earthflows 4:690 earthquakes 3:93f economic losses 4:688, 4:688f engineering geomorphology l:476f, 1:476-478, 1:477f Geographical Information Systems (GIS) 4:426, 4:426f, 4:428? hazard analysis earthquakes 3:93f, 5:327 frequency 1:517? hazard mapping 1:520-522, 1:523f mortality rates 1:517?, 1:51 #?, 4:688 quantification analysis 1:516 lahars 4:690, 5:572, 5:573, 5:574f, 5:576?, 5:576f, 5:577f lidar topography 3:93f mitigation methods 4:692 Mount Saint Helens 4:690, 4:691f mud flows 4:689 occurrence 4:687 quick clay landslides 4:690 rainfall 5:17, 5:19f rockfalls 4:689, 4:689f rotational slides 4:689, 4:690f slope stability studies 4:688 slumps and slides 4:689, 4:690f sturtzstroms 4:690-691 submarine landslides 4:644-645 Tadzhikistanl:518/" talus 4:689 topples 4:689 translational slides 4:689 volcanic hazards 5:573, 5:576?, 5:576f Langhian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478, 5:479/",5:506/",5:517/' Langrenus crater 5:271, 5:27If Langsettian subdivision 4:202f lanthanum (La) carbonatites 3:223?, 3:224?, 3:224f crustal composition 5:174? granitic rocks 3:242f lava/lava flows 3:224f mineral analysis 1:108? oceanic manganese nodular deposits 5:114? lapilli, accretionary 4:3S7?, 4:390?, 5:572? Lapland-Kola orogeny 2:38, 2:41f, 2:42f, 2:43f, 2:44f Lappajarvi, Finland 3:363? Lapparent, Auguste de 3:190 Lapworth, Charles 2:218, 3:62, 3:180, 4:176,4:185 Laramide Orogeny 4:56, 4:57f, 5:460-461 Larapintine Sea 3:128, 3:134f, 3:135f large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:315-323 age dating 3:318 composition 3:317 continental flood basalts 3:315, 3:318, 3:322 Cretaceous 3:363? Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary 3:383 crustal structure 3:317 environmental effects 3:320, 3:320f global distribution 3:315f, 3:317 mantle dynamics 3:319 mantle plumes (hotspots) 3:318, 3:318f mantle roots 3:317 mass extinctions 3:321 f, 3:322, 3:383 occurrence 3:315, 3:316? ocean-basin flood basalts 3:315, 3:318, 3:322 origins 3:320 seamounts 3:316?, 3:318, 3:322 subduction zones 3:318f, 3:319, 3:319f submarine ridges 3:318, 3:320, 3:322 tectonic setting 3:317, 3:317f time distribution 3:318-319, 3:319f types 3:317 volcanic passive margins 3:318, 3:320, 3:322 volcanism 3:317 Lariosaurus 2:506 larnite 3:557-558 Lashly formation 3:147, 3:150f Last Glacial Maximum 1:140, 4:626f9 4:646 last universal common ancestor (LUCA) 4:124 laterites classification 5:26? formation processes 3:488-489, 3:489f, 5:33f, 5:588 occurrence 1:560-561, 5:31-32 palaeoclimate 4:134