526 FOSSIL VERTEBRATES/Cenozoic Amphibians the hynobiid and cryptobranchid salamanders surviving elsewhere, but the palaeobatrachid frogs and albanerpetontids dying out entirely, Europe apparently being their last refugium See Also Lagerstaă tten Mesozoic: End Cretaceous Extinctions Figure The skull of the Miocene amphibian Albanerpeton inexpectatum, from La Grive St Alban, France Reproduced with permission from Estes R and Hoffstetter R (1976) Les urode`les du Mioce`ne de la Grive Saint Alban (Ise`re, France) Bulletin du Muse´um National d’Histoire Naturelle, Sciences de la Terre 57: 297 343 been Mesozoic, but further finds have been made in Paleocene material of North America, Miocene material of Germany, and Pliocene material of Romania At present, it appears that a few lineages survived the K–T event in the northern continents, making the last appearance of these species in North America in the Paleogene, but lingering on in Eurasia until the Pliocene, when they appear to have died out during the glaciations Amphibians and the Pleistocene Glaciations The sequence of Pleistocene glaciations appears to have had a dramatic effect on the amphibian fauna of Europe In part, this is undoubtedly because the southward movement of aquatic vertebrates was constrained by the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Carpathians, and, more profoundly, the Mediterranean Sea Several genera of amphibians, widespread as fossils over Early Neogene Europe, are now restricted to various permutations of the Iberian Peninsula, Italy, and the Balkans (the salamander genera Pleurodeles and Chioglossa and the frog genus Discoglossus) More dramatically, four families became extinct in Europe, Further Reading Ba´ ez AM (2000) Tertiary Anura of South America In: Heatwole H and Carroll RL (eds.) Amphibian Biology, Volume 4, Palaeontology: The Evolutionary History of Amphibians ch 15, pp 1388 1401 Chipping Norton, NSW: Surrey Beatty Holman JA (1995) Pleistocene Amphibians and Reptiles in North America Oxford Monographs on Geology and Geophysics, 32 New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press Holman JA (1998) Pleistocene Amphibians and Reptiles in Britain and Europe Oxford Monographs on Geology and Geophysics, 38 New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press Holman JA (2003) Fossil Frogs and Toads of North America Bloomington and Minneapolis: Indiana Press Milner AR (2000) Mesozoic and Tertiary Caudata and Albanerpetontidae In: Heatwole H and Carroll RL (eds.) Amphibian Biology, Volume 4, Palaeontology: The Evolutionary History of Amphibians ch 18, pp 1412 1444 Chipping Norton, NSW: Surrey Beatty Rage J C and Rocˇ ek Z (2003) Evolution of anuran as semblages in the Tertiary and Quaternary of Europe, in the context of palaeoclimate and palaeogeography Amphibia Reptilia 24: 133 167 Rocˇ ek Z and Rage J C (2000) Tertiary Anura of Africa, Asia, Europe, North America and Australia In: Heatwole H and Carroll RL (eds.) Amphibian Biology, Volume 4, Palaeontology: The Evolutionary History of Amphibians ch 15, pp 1334 1389 Chipping Norton, NSW: Surrey Beatty Sanchı´z B (1998) Salientia In: Wellnhofer P (ed.) Handbuch der Palaă oherpetologie, part Munich: Pfeil