Peenemünde PEENEMÜNDE Baltic site of development and testing of the German V-weapons program Researchers at Peenemünde developed rocket technology under the directorship of Werner von Braun Work was also done on jet fighters and bombers, and with far less success on an atomic bomb project for Adolf Hitler Slave labor was used extensively Some heroic Jews and other prisoners sabotaged rockets and jets, slowing weapons production The Western Allies heavily bombed Peenemünde on several occasions, the first time by the RAF on August 17–18, 1943 Bombing drove work deep underground A number of German scientists escaped to American lines at the end of the war; some were captured by the Soviets Each group was instrumental in developing space and intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) programs during the Cold War See also nuclear weapons programs PELELIU The costly taking of Peleliu was part of the second Philippines campaign (1944–1945), as securing an airfield on the island was thought important to protect the flank of the invasion of Luzon The U.S Navy pounded what they thought were the usual Japanese beach defenses for three days before marines assaulted on September 15, 1944 In fact, the 11,000-man Japanese garrison had mostly shifted farther inland It was well-entrenched and protected from the fierce naval bombardment As marines hit the beaches they were brought under murderous, presited defensive fire It took eight days of carnage to seize the airfield, and much longer to winnow Japanese out of linked caves and strongpoints inland The island was declared secure in November, but there were still defenders offering resistance to U.S Army replacements into early 1945 Most of the Japanese garrison was killed, along with over 1,200 Americans, who also suffered over 4,000 wounded On the American side, that was a high price paid for the enemy adjusting his tactics while the U.S Navy and Marines clung to assault methods revealed to the Japanese earlier in the war In addition, there was deep and costly interservice conflict: it has been argued that 1st Marine Division was not large enough for the operation but that Marine commanders were too proud to ask for U.S Army help As for the Japanese, General Hideki To ˉjoˉ and Imperial General Headquarters saw the garrison on Peleliu as expendable: the sole purpose of defense to the death was to take down as many Americans as possible, never mind that the Japanese also suffered extinction Suggested Reading: Harry Gailey, Peleliu, 1944 (1983); E B Sledge, With the Old Breed: At Peleliu and Okinawa (1981; 2007) PENAL BATTALIONS “shtraf ” or “strafnye.” Modeled on Wehrmacht and Waffen-SS punishment units, Red Army penal battalions existed at the start of the war but were vastly increased as a result of Stalin’s Order #227 of July 28, 1942, demanding “Not one step backwards!” Order #227 declared that retreating without explicit orders thereafter would be deemed an offense worthy of death “Shoot on the spot panic-mongers and cowards,” he commanded Some 842