On food and cooking the science and lore of the kitchen ( PDFDrive ) 1002

kernel down into small particles, and sifting the particles to make a flour of the desired qualities Most flours are refined: that is, they have been sieved to remove the germ and bran layers from the particles of protein-and starch-rich endosperm Bran and germ are rich in nutrients and flavor, but they go rancid in a few weeks, and interfere physically and chemically with the formation of a continuous, strong gluten; so whole-grain flours make denser, darker breads and pastries In conventional milling, grooved metal rollers shear open the grain, squeeze out the germ, and scrape the endosperm away to be ground, sieved, and reground until the particles reach the desired size Stone grinding, which is much rarer, crushes the whole grain more thoroughly before sieving, so that some of the germ and bran end up in even the refined flours Stone-ground flour is therefore more flavorful than conventionally milled flour, but also has a shorter shelf-life Improving and Bleaching Bakers have known for a long time that freshly milled flour makes a weak gluten, a slack dough, and a dense loaf As the flour ages for a few weeks in contact with the air, its gluten and baking properties improve We understand now that oxygen in the air gradually frees the glutenin proteins’ end sulfur groups to react with each other and form ever longer gluten chains that give the dough greater elasticity Beginning around 1900, millers began to save time, space, and money by supplementing freshly milled flour with oxidizing chlorine gas and then with potassium bromate However, worries about the potential toxicity of bromate residues in the late 1980s led most millers to replace bromate with ascorbic acid (vitamin C) or azodicarbonamide (Ascorbic acid itself is an antioxidant, but becomes oxidized to dehydroascorbic acid, which in turn oxidizes the gluten proteins.) In Europe, fava bean flour and soy flour have been used ... its gluten and baking properties improve We understand now that oxygen in the air gradually frees the glutenin proteins’ end sulfur groups to react with each other and form ever longer gluten chains that...Improving and Bleaching Bakers have known for a long time that freshly milled flour makes a weak gluten, a slack dough, and a dense loaf As the flour ages for a few weeks in contact with the air,... However, worries about the potential toxicity of bromate residues in the late 1980s led most millers to replace bromate with ascorbic acid (vitamin C) or azodicarbonamide (Ascorbic acid itself