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iii
Preface
While the history of relations between the press and the military pre-
dates modern journalism, much of what had gone before was neu-
tralized by the horrible press-military breakdown that occurred dur-
ing U.S. involvement in Vietnam. By the end of the Vietnam War,
press-military trust was at an all time low, and antagonism on both
sides at an all time high. Many in the press, feeling repeatedly misled,
reported ongoing events in an unfavorable light; many in the military
felt betrayed by this “inappropriate” and negative press coverage and
wanted to have nothing further to do with the press. Following Viet-
nam, the tension between First Amendment protections, generally
accepted citizen “right to know,” and military resistance and desire
for operational secrecy has led press-military relations through several
different institutional forms. First, the complete exclusion of the press
from the intervention in Grenada, followed by the better but less-
than-satisfactory “press pool” systems used in Panama and during the
first Gulf War, and the “turning of the tables” in Haiti and Somalia,
where the press was in country before the troops, concluding (for the
present) with the “embedded press” system, in which journalists are
attached to, and travel with specific military units. The embedded
press system appears to be the best solution to date at balancing the
needs of the three core constituencies (the press, the military, and the
public); the questions remain whether that appearance is correct,
what improvements remain to be made, and what, if any, vulnerabili-
ties (for any of the constituents) the embedded press system creates.
iv Reportersonthe Battlefield: The Embedded Press System in Historical Context
This research focuses onthe embedded press system deployed
during Operation Iraqi Freedom and should be of interest to those in
the armed forces, the media, policymakers responsible for regulating
press access, as well as the public at large. It attempts to answer the
following questions: How effective was the embedded press system in
meeting the needs of the three main constituencies (the press, the
military, and the citizens of the United States)? What policy history
led to the innovation of an embedded press system? Where are press-
military relations likely to go in the future? These questions are an-
swered through an evaluation of the embedded press system, a set of
lessons learned from press-military relations during the recent con-
flict, and an analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the embedded
press system (or its descendants) for possible future operations.
This research was conducted within the International Security
and Defense Policy Center (ISDP) of the National Security Research
Division (NSRD), a unit of the RAND Corporation. NSRD con-
ducts research and analysis for the Office of the Secretary of Defense,
the Joint Staff, the Unified Commands, the defense agencies, the De-
partment of the Navy, the U.S. intelligence community, allied for-
eign governments, and foundations.
This book results from the RAND Corporation’s continuing
program of self-initiated research. Support for such research is pro-
vided, in part, by donors and by the independent research and devel-
opment provisions of RAND’s contracts for the operation of its U.S.
Department of Defense federally funded research and development
centers.
For more information onthe RAND International Security and
Defense Policy Center, contact the director, James Dobbins. He can
be reached at James_Dobbins@rand.org; 310-393-0411, ext. 5134;
RAND Corporation, 1700 Main Street, Santa Monica, California
90407-2138.
v
Contents
Preface iii
Figures
ix
Tables
xi
Summary
xiii
Acknowledgments
xxiii
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction 1
The Origins of “Embedded Press”
1
Defining the Key Constituencies in Military-Press Relations
3
Methods
4
Significance of this Research
5
Structure of the Book
6
CHAPTER TWO
The Relationship Between the Press and the Military:
A Starting Point
7
The Press
8
Mission Focus: Reporting
8
Institutional Characteristics
10
Press Goals for News Coverage
14
The Military
17
Mission Focus: Protection and Defense of the United States
18
Institutional Characteristics
18
Military Goals Related to News Coverage
21
vi Reportersonthe Battlefield: The Embedded Press System in Historical Context
Comparison of the Press and the Military 26
Goals of the Press or Military Vis-à-Vis the Public
28
The Public’s Goals for News Coverage
29
Press-Military Relations
30
Conclusion
34
CHAPTER THREE
History of Relations Between the Press and the Military 35
Case Studies: The Legacies of History
36
Vietnam: A Critical Juncture in Press-Military Relations and a
Massive Legacy of Mistrust
36
Grenada: Backlash Against the Press
39
Panama: Press Pool Doesn’t Work
40
First Gulf War: Coverage But Not Access
42
Somalia: The Press Turns the Tables
46
Haiti: Prelude to Cooperation
47
Bosnia and Kosovo: Proto–Embedded Press System
48
Afghanistan: Special Forces Are Hard to Cover
50
Major Combat Operations in Iraq: The Triumph of
Embedded Press
51
Observations
57
CHAPTER FOUR
Systems for Press Access and Measures for Evaluating Outcomes 63
Systems for Organizing Military-Press Relations
64
Access Strategies for Organizing Press-Military Relations
64
Operational Security Strategies
68
Summary of Systems for Organizing Military-Press Relations
70
Implementation of Systems for Managing Press-Military Relations
72
Measures for Evaluating the Embedded Press System
74
CHAPTER FIVE
Preliminary Evaluations of the Embedded Press and Other
Systems for Organizing Press-Military Relations
77
The Embedded Press System
78
Military Goals and Measures
78
Contents vii
Press Goals and Measures 83
Public Goals and Measures
89
Comparison of Embedded Press and Other Systems for Organizing
Press-Military Relations
91
Military Goals and Measures
91
Press Goals and Measures
95
Public Goals and Measures
96
Implications for Coverage of Future Conflicts
98
The Consequences of Different Contexts on Press-Military Relations
100
Legacies of Previous Conflicts
100
Technology
101
Planning and Lead Time
101
Nature of the Operation
102
Quality of Opposition
104
The Value of Victory
105
The Price of Failure
106
Conclusion
108
CHAPTER SIX
The Future of Embedded Press 109
Widespread Applause
110
Possible Shortcomings
110
The Embedded Press System Created a Hierarchy of Credentials
111
The “Soda-Straw” View of War
111
Loss of Objectivity
112
Technology and the Consequences of the 24-Hour News Cycle
113
Professionalism and Preparation of the Media
114
Suggestions for Future Research
114
APPENDIX
A. The Public’s “Right to Know” 117
B. Outcomes and Measures of the Embedded Press System
123
Bibliography
139
[...]... foundational issues relevant to the relationship between the press and the military We begin by describing the missions of the two institutions as well as the respective mission-related goals and institutional characteristics of each We then focus onthe goals of each institution for wartime news coverage A discussion of these goals allows us to make several observations on the relationship between the. .. that reporters constituted a fourth branch of Parliament.6 The notion of the press as the 4th Estate has continued relevance in the context of the contemporary United States, in that the press, although not a formal part of the government, continues to play an important role for democracy by reporting onthe process and outcomes of the government Another broad goal relating to the press’s mission is the. .. public relations for the military Perhaps the only exception was negative coverage during xviii Reportersonthe Battlefield: The Embedded Press System in Historical Context the second week of the war News coverage of the major combat operations phase was carried out with far fewer press complaints than seen in previous major conventional operations, such as those in Grenada, Panama, and the first Gulf... relationship between the press and the military The chapter concludes by considering the relationship of the press and the military vis-à-vis the third core constituency, the public The Press Mission Focus: Reporting Obviously, the main mission of the press is to collect, edit, and report the news.4 This role has its foundation in the First Amendment right 3 Steger, 4 “Slicing the Gordian Knot,” p 957... working definition of the press in Chapter One, we wish to briefly highlight the contribution of the singular work of Michael Schudson onthe nature of news and of the press (Schudson, Michael, The Power of News, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995) Schudson’s discussion of the press contains several key points that have contributed to our understanding of military-press relations, the most important... At their worst the military wraps itself in the flag and the media wrap themselves in the First Amendment and neither party listens to the other — Peter Andrews1 Numerous scholars begin their discussion of press-military relations from the premise that the two institutions are inherently different in both their nature and goals.2 Although some of the more nuanced analyses recognize the contribution... between the military and the press with regard to the dissemination of information during wartime: While the military is focused chiefly on preventing information of value from falling into enemy hands, the press aims to broadcast the full story to the public To examine the role of the embedded press, we have constructed an evaluative framework that considers the goals of the press, the military, and the. .. because they identify too closely with the soldiers with whom they are embedded Given the myriad pressures and possible sources of bias that are brought to bear onreporters every day, we did not find the potential bias inherent in xxii Reportersonthe Battlefield: The Embedded Press System in Historical Context the embedding process to be of great concern; however, further research may be warranted • The. .. this relationship experienced a significant shift during the Vietnam War, as news cov- xvi Reportersonthe Battlefield: The Embedded Press System in Historical Context erage critical of both the war and the military engendered tensions The legacy of these tensions significantly influenced press-military relations in later operations in Grenada and Panama Another notable shift occurred during the first... thing is that he have a tongue which others will listen to; this and nothing more is requisite 10 Reporters on the Battlefield: The Embedded Press System in Historical Context related concerns have been shown to have an impact on story selection,7 format decisions,8 and presentation of news content.9 Some scholars take the cynical stance that the profit motive is the sole goal of the press, 10 but we . during
xviii Reporters on the Battlefield: The Embedded Press System in Historical Context
the second week of the war. News coverage of the major combat op-
erations. Coverage
21
vi Reporters on the Battlefield: The Embedded Press System in Historical Context
Comparison of the Press and the Military 26
Goals of the Press