The Search for Peace in Times of Chaos—Volume Women were expected to obey the will of their father, then their husband, and then their adult son in old age However, it is known from contemporary sources that there were many deviations to this rule, especially in regard to mothers over their sons, and empresses who ordered around and openly humiliated their fathers and brothers.13 Death and Afterlife In pre-modern China, a person’s desire for continuance beyond death was rooted in different assumptions and manifested in practices not closely related to the pursuit of individual salvation First, Chinese emphasized biological continuance through descendants to whom they gave the gift of life and for whom they sacrificed many of life’s material pleasures Moreover, personal sacrifice was not rooted in a belief in asceticism per se , but in a belief that sacrificing for one’s offspring would engender in them obligations toward elders and ancestors These included obligations to care for one’s body as a gift from one’s parents and to succeed in life so as to glorify the family ancestors Thus, one lived beyond the grave above all through the health and success of one’s children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren Second, because of the obligations ingrained in children and grandchildren, one could assume they would care for one in old age and in the afterlife Indeed, afterlife care involved the most significant and complex rituals in Chinese religious life, including funerals, burials, mourning practices, and rites for ancestors All this was important not only as an expression of each person’s hope for continuance beyond death but as an expression of people’s concern that souls for whom no one cared would become ghosts intent on causing mischief Finally, there was a stress on mutual obligations between the living and the dead It was assumed that the dead could influence the quality of life for those still in this world—either for good or for ill On the one hand, proper burial, careful observance of mourning practices, and ongoing offerings of food and gifts for ancestors assured their continued aid On the other hand, failure to observe ritual obligations might bring on the wrath of one s ancestors, resulting in family disharmony, economic ruin, or sickness