18 J Yeates and D Bowles like wolves These issues can lead to a black market in such animals and issues around consumer protection (Cusdin and Greenwood 2000) Raising of Offspring Many breeding harms relate to the care of the progeny In England, Scotland and Wales, there are licensing systems, conditional upon a veterinary surgeon or other inspector visiting the breeders to ensure their dogs: • • • • • • live in suitable accommodation receive adequate food, water and bedding get enough exercise are transported in safe and comfortable conditions are protected in case of fire or other emergency are protected from the spread of disease Large scale commercial breeding establishments (often called ‘puppy farms’ or ‘puppy mills’) can be unsuitable environments for puppies (McMillan et al 2011, 2013) Welfare problems can result from extremes of temperature, inadequate veterinary care or high levels of diseases These diseases may not necessarily show themselves while the maternal antibodies (from the milk) are still active within the puppy, but may cause problems when they wear off Stressors such as transport to a point of sale can also trigger diseases such as parvovirus, a reason why puppies succumb to illness in the week after being sold For those illegal breeders and vendors, there is an increased incentive to sell or dispose of sick animals as quickly as possible and avoid being traceable to the purchaser Puppies and kittens need to spend long enough with their mother and littermates both to gain nutrition and to help them learn about the world and how to behave socially (e.g., Goodard and Beilharz 1986) Puppies and kittens also need to undergo experiences so they are familiar with what they will encounter later, such as meeting a range of other dogs (not just the mother and littermates); a variety of humans (that is, not just kennel staff); and household events and objects, so that they not find those experiences stressful or fearful later (for example, see Bradshaw 2012; Defra 2009) Breeding dogs in ‘intensive’ conditions is unlikely to facilitate the required human interaction, due to the lack of time staff have to interact with the animals; similarly, breeding dogs in closed barn conditions restricts their range of experiences In some cases, these conditions may directly violate