International Trade in Animals and Animal Parts 241 Justice 2015) Likewise, the farming of captive-bred tigers and bears, as discussed above, is practiced as a contentious alternative to killing wild populations (IFAW 2006) Conclusion Clearly, IWT threatens the survival of some species Yet, perhaps more significantly, in terms of the focus of this chapter, the wildlife ‘utilised’ in both the legal and illegal trade are forced to endure individual and institutionalised abuse Though estimates of scale have been provided here, these must be considered with caution as they are highly imprecise and difficult to measure, as Regueira and Bernard (2012) note We know that the IWT happens essentially everywhere and that it costs numerous animals their lives: for each wild animal traded alive, (Redford 1992) to 10 (RENCTAS 2001) others may have died Illegal trade conditions are frequently degrading: animals are caged in overcrowded compartments, without water and food, and suffer stress, fights, mutilations and death (RENCTAS 2001) or a significant reduction in life expectancy (Vanstreels et al 2010) The interconnected nature of this damage makes this a transnational crime in that it harms more than the individuals directly in contact with it For example, the removal of such a high number of individuals from their habitat can lead to species extinctions and compromise several ecological services (for example, pollination, seed dispersal, and control of populations of other animals) (Regueira and Bernard 2012) The routine abuse, suffering and death all provide profound evidence of the victimisation of animals within the legal and illegal wildlife trade Wyatt (2013c) argues there is not a single case of wildlife trade where an animal has not suffered in some fashion Being captured, smuggled, possibly dying, or living a life in pain and/or confinement (even possibly after being ‘rescued’ from the trade) are all forms of animal abuse As with other types of animal abuse, offenders in the IWT vary considerably in terms of demographics and background, and there is no simple or definitive answer as to what motivates them (Wyatt 2013c) Offender types and motivations are rarely discrete; typically, they overlap and are influenced by both macro and micro factors Rational choice theory highlights that IWT offenders motivated to secure significant financial reward can so with little cost, risk or concern for welfare However, it is also crucial to understand the broader social norms (Von Essen et al 2014), facilitated by speciesism and anthropocentric interests, which allow individuals to ignore or reject the