International Trade in Animals and Animal Parts 229 In terms of being used to create products, one of the clearest examples of animal abuse is the farming of bears for bile To collect bile, the bears on these farms are kept alive They live in small cages just big enough for them to stand up Metal shunts puncture their skin and are inserted directly into their gallbladders The bile is then collected by dripping down the shunt into pans (World Society for the Protection of Animals [WSPA] n.d.) The live, unanaesthetised bear then lives with an open wound being ‘milked’ for its gall Another example of animal abuse inflicted to obtain a single product is the act of shark finning Fishing vessels catch sharks, only to chop off their fins The sharks, still alive, are then thrown back into the ocean where they slowly die a painful death (Humane Society International 2013) Both of these examples demonstrate that the abuse occurring in legal and illegal wildlife trade is at the individual level—a single bear or shark enduring injury—and at an institutional level—entire species are subjected to commercialisation and industrial- scale consumption with little or no regard for welfare At the next stage of the trade or trafficking journey, a significant portion of wildlife that makes up the legal and the black market are kept alive during transportation or smuggling and this has its own welfare implications Transportation and/or Smuggling Transportation of live animals, be it legally or illegally, is unavoidably stressful and most likely emotionally and physically traumatic for the wildlife Arguably, to avoid detection, smugglers need to employ covert transportation, which increases the likelihood that the animals experience suffering and/or injury (Wyatt 2013c) There are instances where illegal wildlife are trafficked ‘openly’—laundered—with permits and documentation used in the legal trade Yet even when wildlife is laundered or legal, there are potential harms endured during transportation For example, legal shipments of reptiles and other live animals are packed into containers to be flown around the world These containers may be unsuitable—either too small and cramped or overcrowded with too many individuals in any one container (Wyatt 2013b) Even though CITES parties must enforce the International Air Transport Association [IATA] (2004) Live Animal Regulations [LAR] which are applied to animals in air transit, requiring a minimum standard of space and welfare conditions and involving a maximum period in transit—as established through scientific research—not all legal shipments meet this standard (Wyatt 2013b) Flights and boat